Table of Contents
Izinduna Zokwahlulela ZeSichibiyelo Sokuqala: Indlela Izinkantolo Ezibumba Ngayo Futhi Zivikele Inkululeko Yezigebengu
ISichibiyelo Sokuqala eMthethweni woMthetho-sisekelo waseMelika siyisisekelo senkululeko eyisisekelo emihlanu yaseMelika eyisisekelo, inkolo, inkulumo, ukunyathelisa, ukuhlangana nokunxusa. Nakuba umbhalo ngokwawo ufushane, “‘ iConreg ngeke yenze umthetho ngokuphathelene nokumiswa kwenkolo, noma ukunqatshelwa kokusetshenziswa kwayo; noma ukuvimbela inkululeko yokukhuluma, noma yokunyathelisa; noma ilungelo labantu lokuhlangana ngokuthula, nokunxusa kukahulumeni ukuba alungise izikhalo, − − − − incazelo yangempela yomhlaba. Izinkantolo zisebenza njengezikhundla eziyinhloko zalenkululeko, ukuchaza izingathakazelo, ukuxazulula izingxabano phakathi kwezindinganiso zokuphikisana, nokuhlola uhulumeni. Ngaphandle kokuzimela izikhali, isilinganiso esiphansi. Izentethele imingcele ingenzeke kakhulu. Izena intethelelo ephambili, idingisisa izinselele zezentengo yokwahlulela, futhi ihluleka ukuhlanganisa izimo zomthetho zanamuhla, futhi idingida, izihloko ezidingisiwe, futhi idingida izihloko zeze izihloko zanamuhla, izibalo zeze i - komiti, iqala, idingind.
Ukubukeza Kokwahlulela: Isisekelo Sesichibiyelo Sokuqala
Amandla Okuhlasela Imithetho
Imfundiso yokuhlola kokwahlulela, esungulwe kuMarbury v. Madison (1803), inika izinkantolo zikahulumeni amandla okuchitha imithetho ephula umthetho. Leligunya yi-licklock of First Amendment i-gactive jogist joging. Uma i-pastimen idlulisa umthetho ovimbela ukukhuluma, ucindezela, noma inkolo, izinkantolo ziwukuhlolwa okuphelele. Le nqubo iqala lapho umuntu ngamunye noma inhlangano iletha ukuphikisa komthetho womthetho. Inkantolo isebenzisa ukuhlaziya okuqinile: ingabe uhulumeni uphishekela isithakazelo esiphoqele? Ingabe umthetho uphoqelela impatho elinganiselwe? Ingenzeka yini ukuthi lemibuzo ifeze umgomo ofanayo? Lemibuzo ingenzeke ingaphakathi lokubukelo oluqalayo oluqalayo oluqalayo oluqalayo lwezentengo olumthetho ezimweni zezenzile.
Ukuhlakanipha Okuqinile Nemingcele Esekelwe Kukho
Elinye lamathuluzi abaluleke kakhulu asetshenziswa izinkantolo izinga lokuhlola elisetshenziswa emthetho ophikiswayo. Imithetho elawula ukukhuluma okusekelwe ekuqukethe − njengokuvimbela umbono othile − ikhonsathi zisebenza [[ ukuhlola okuqinile[, indinganiso enzima kakhulu. Ngaphansi kokuhlola okuqinile. Uhulumeni kumelwe abonise ukuthi ukuvimbela kufeza isithakazelo sombuso futhi kudonswa kancane ukuze kufinyelele lesosithakazelo. Ekwenzeni, imingcele esekelwe kuyo ayizange ihlale ikhona ikhona i-inikeziwe. Lemfundiso ibonisa ukungabaza uhulumeni nganoma yimuphi umzamo wokufuna ukuwina nokulahlekelwa emibonweni yemiqondo. Izibonelo ihlanganisa ukuvinjelwa (ukuthuthwa kwe-'FLD:][FT]][3]][FFON]]] noma ukugxekwa kobugebengu bahulumeni.[5]]]][5]]]]
Icala Lenkantolo Ephakeme Echaza Isichibiyelo Sokuqala
Inkulumo Ezikoleni: ITinker v. Des Moines Independent School Community School (1969)
Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme .Des Moines v. silokhu singenye yezindaba ezinethonya kakhulu zabafundi abakhuluma ngazo. Ngo-1965, iqembu labafundi lagqoka izibambo ezimnyama esikoleni ukuze liphikise iMpi yaseVietnam. Isikole sakha umthetho owenqabela ukuvalwa kwenga kwengalo futhi walengisa abafundi. INkantolo yanquma ukuba abafundi bangachithi amalungelo abo okuqala esangoni lesikole. IJaji Abe Fortas yabhala ukuthi izikhulu zesikole kumelwe zibonise ukuthi izimpawu zabafundi zingenze inqubo yemfundo ngaphambi kokuba ivinjelwe. Icala lasungula isiqobo sesikole sokuhlola, hhayi nje ukuvikela inkulumo yezombangazwe kodwa nesibonakaliso. [FLT:] [FF]
IProfes Premin Freedom and Dost Primet: New York Times Co. v. United States (1971)
Futhi eyaziwa ngokuthi iPentagon Papers, [[FLT Times Co.0] iNew York Co. v. United States yakhuluma nomzamo kahulumeni wokuvimbela ukukhishwa kwezincwadi ezihlelwa ngokwezigaba ze-U.S. ukwenza isinqumo eVietnam. INkantolo yaveza ngokucacile ukuthi incwadi ilimaza ukulondeka kwesizwe. INkantolo Ephakeme, ephethe ngombono ngamunye, yakholelwa ukuthi uhulumeni uhlulekile ukuhlangabezana nomthwalo onzima odingwa ukuba ubekelwe imingcele yangaphambili, futhi uhulumeni uvimbele ukuvimbela ukukhuluma. INkantolo yenza kwacaca ukuthi noma isiphi isimiso sokuzilawula sangaphambili sifika ngokugawuza okuqinile kokungahlolwa kwesizwe. Lokhu kwaqinisekisa ukuthi uhulumeni unendima ebalulekile ekuhloleni ukuphatha uhulumeni, ngisho nalapho uhulumeni efihla imfihlose.
Ukushukunyiswa noKuvivinywa Okucacile Nokuphaphamisa Ingozi: Brandenburg v. Ohio (1969)
[[FLT: 0]] Brandenburg v.O., iNkantolo yacwenga indinganiso yecala lapho inkulumo ingajeziswa ngokugqugquzela umsebenzi ongekho emthethweni. Umholi weKlux Klan wabekwa icala ngaphansi komthetho wezobugebengu waseOhio owephula umthetho wokwenza izinkulumo zobandlululo. INkantolo yalahla ukuqiniseka, yamisa ukuhlolelwa kwanamuhla: inkulumo ingabekwa imingcele uma iqondiswa ekuvuseleni isenzo sokungabi namthetho futhi cishe iphumele isinyathelo esinjalo. Lokhu kunikeza isivikelo esikhulu ngenxa yecala leze yesizwe, ngisho nokuzonda ukuhlasela okusheshayo, ngaphandle kokuba kungene ebudloveni noma ebudloveni. Isinqumo esidala nesezingeni elisobala futhi esikhona sifaka ingozi [Fock][3] [FF] [19]
Inkululeko Engokwenkolo Ne - Free Execrect: I - Account Division v. Smith (1990)
ISichibiyelo Sokuqala seSiphendulo se-Free Execle Claus senqabela uhulumeni ekubekeni izinkolelo ezingokwenkolo. Nokho, Employment Division v. Smith, iNkantolo Ephakeme yathi umthetho owenqabela ukungathathi hlangothi, ngokuvamile osebenza owenqabela ukuvivinya kwezenkolo ngokulandelana kwemithwalo. Icala elihilela izisebenzi zoMdabu waseMelika ezixoxiweyo elixoxile ngokusebenzisa ipeyote emkhosini wenkolo. Inkantolo, ngombono weJaji, isho ukuthi ilungelo lokuzivivinya alisi abantu ngabanye ekuvumelaneni nemithetho esebenzayo kubo bonke abantu. Lesi sinqumo sashukumisela ukuba kudluliswe uMthetho wenkolo wenkululeko (RRA) ngo 1993, eyabuyisela isithakazelo esiqinile semithetho kahulumeni. Ukuchaza ukuvikela kwemithetho phakathi kwemithetho ye-Geneganise.
Indima Yezinkantolo Eziphansi Nezinkantolo ZoMbuso
Izinkantolo Zesigodi Nezinkantolo Zokudlulisa Amacala: Izimpawu Eziphambili
Nakuba iNkantolo Ephakeme ithola ukunakwa okukhulu, amacala amaningi eSichibiyelo sokuQala anqunywa ezinkantolo zesifunda zesifunda nasezinkantolo zesifunda ezihambela izicelo. Lezinkantolo zisingatha iziyalo zokwandulela, izahlulelo eziphinyathiselwe, nokulingwa. Izinqumo zazo zivame ukubeka isibonelo esibophayo ezifundeni zazo zendawo. Ngokwesibonelo, izinkantolo zesine zesifunda ezibusayo i - I - I - i - I - i - i - i - iancocu v. UBrune [[FLT] v] v. [iright:] [2029] [20] [2029]) zishaya isigwebo sikahulumeni sokungabhalisa izimpawu ezihlazisa indelelo, icala kamuva elifika eNkabeni Ephakeme. Izinkantolo zezehlokohlokozokuqala zize ngisho nezokunikeza isivikelo somthetho olwembubhishobhishobhile, njengomthetho wezezezembubhishobhile yomphakathi, izikole, nesembubhishoshoshoshoshoshosholo
Imfundiso Yokuma Nokuziphakamisa
Ngaphambi kokuba inkantolo inqume ngeSichibiyelo Sokuqala, i-paltiff kumelwe ime (i-consic ne-active enziwa i-alctum) enziwa i-odoli futhi incishiswe yinkantolo. Ngaphezu kwalokho, icala kumelwe livuthwe (alilethwa ngaphambi kwesikhathi) futhi lingabi nacala (impikiswano ikhona). Lezi zithiyo zomthetho zingavimbela izinkantolo ukuba zivimbele amacala aqulwayo, ngisho noma inkululeko eyisisekelo isengozini isengozini. Nokho, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yaqaphela ukuthi izinselele zokuVumisa iSiphendulo sokuqala ngokuvamile zihilela imfucucucu, ivumela amapesenti ukuba aphikise ukuthi umthetho awupholi kodwa umlomo wabanye. Imfundiso engaphezulu kakhulu iyithuluzi elinamandla lokubekela imithetho efinyelela kuyo yonke.
Ukulinganisela Izithakazelo Eziphikizanayo: Ukulinganiselwa Nezinhlangothi Ezihlukile
Izinhlobo Zenkulumo Engavikelwanga
Naphezu kokudlondlobala kwayo, iSichibiyelo sokuqala asivikeli zonke izinkulumo. Izinkantolo ziye zaqaphela ngokungaguquki izigaba eziningana zenkulumo eziwelela ngaphandle kwesivikelo somthetho-sisekelo: ukugqugquzela (njengoba kuphawuliwe), amagama okusongela, ukuhlanjalazwa, ukuhlanjalazwa kwabantwana, nokukhuluma okunesizo lwako olubalulekile ekuziphatheni kobugebengu. Isigaba ngasinye sinovivinyo lwaso olungokomthetho. Isibonelo, ukuhlanjalazwa kudinga ubufakazi benkulumo engamanga ebhalwe ngecala elingokoqobo lapho ihilela inani lomphakathi ( iNew York Times v.[FLT]]) isilinganiso umuntu angathola ukuthi usebenza yini umsebenzi, noma cha. I-obscen inter ichazwa ngezinzuzo ezintathu ze-Miller ezinhlolo ezihlolwayobukweni zezombangazwe, noma ezingezinhlangothini ezingoko zeze zezesayensi. Izindlela ezingoko zezesayensi, noma ezilawulayo. Izindlela eziqinile, zigwenywe ngokunezezeze zezesayensi, futhi zigwegwegwegwegwe, noma zigwenwe kakhulu. Izindlela
Imingcele Yesikhathi, Indawo, Neyomuntu
Uhulumeni ungabeka imingcele enengqondo esikhathini, indawo, nendlela yokukhuluma, uma imingcele ilinganiselwe, ilinganiselwe ukuba ifeze isithakazelo sikahulumeni esibalulekile, futhi ishiye eminye imikhondo yokuxhumana. Ngokwesibonelo, idolobha lingadinga imvume yokulawula izimoto nokuphepha komphakathi, uma nje inqubo yemvume inganikezi izikhulu ukwahlulela okungaguquguquki kokungavumelani nomyalezo. Icala elivulekile v. Rock Against Racism[[FLT:] [19989]] iqinisekisa ukuthi ngisho nasempahleni enjengepaki noma imigwaqo, uhulumeni ungalawula izinga lomsindo futhi uhlele isikhathi eside njengoba umthetho ungahleli ngendlela esekelwe ewubheka njengeyo. Inkantolo ifeza indima ebucayi ekuqinisekiseni iziqondiso eziqotho, ukuvikela okungahleleki.
Inkulumo Kahulumeni Nezisebenzi Zomphakathi
Uma uhulumeni ekhuluma, akunazizithiyo zeSichibiyelo Sokuqala ngendlela efanayo, kungakhethwa ukuthi iziphi izigijimi ezizodluliselwa. Nokho, uma abantu bekhuluma ngempahla kahulumeni noma njengezisebenzi zikahulumeni, ukuhlaziya kuyashintsha. Gercetti v. I-Ceballos [2006], iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela ukuthi lapho izisebenzi zomphakathi zikhuluma ngokuphambanisa imisebenzi yazo engokomthetho, azikhulumi njengezakhamuzi zezezinjongo zokuqala. Kodwa uma zikhuluma njengezakhamuzi ezindabeni zomphakathi, zingavikelwa empindisweni. Izinkantolo kumelwe zidwebe lemide ngomo yezentengo yezentengo, njengesikhulu samaphoyisa esigxeka izinqubo noma uthisha oxoxa ngezihloko zesikole.
Izinselele Zesikhathi Esizayo: Imithombo Yezokuzijabulisa, Inzondo Nokungakhulumisani
Izinhlaka Zemithombo Yezindaba Nemfundiso KaHulumeni
ISichibiyelo Sokuqala ngokuvamile sisebenza kuphela esinyathelweni sikahulumeni, hhayi ekuziphatheni okungasese. Izinkampani zezokuxhumana njenge Facebook, iTwitter (manje uX), kanye ne-YouTube ziyizinto ezizimele, ngakho izimiso zazo ezikuqukethe azilawulwa ngokuqondile yiSichibiyelo Sokuqala. Nokho, uma lezi zinkampani zivimbela abasebenzisi noma izigxobo, abagxeki baphikisa ukuthi basebenzisa amandla ombuso phezu kwenkulumo yomphakathi. Izinkantolo zezenhlalo zezelelwa zisuke zingaba abadlali bezezomthetho noma abathwali abavamile abangaphansi kwemithetho ehlukene. [[FLT:] Ezezinkantolo eziningi zezentengiselwano], izikhangiso ziphikisa ukuthi zisebenzisa amandla embuthwaneni yezomphakathi. [FLTF:] [FU.5] [FUF]] [FUFocen.[Focensesssss, ngokungaphezulu kwemithelela izikhasime, izikhulu zezezezezezindaba, izimo ezithelela izikhulu zezezezezezwe, izimo, izimo ezithi, izi
Inkulumo Ezondwayo: Isivikelo Noma Imingcele?
I-United States ivelele phakathi kwemibuso yentando yeningi yaseNtshonalanga ngenxa yesivikelo sayo esikhulu sokukhuluma inzondo. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yalahla ngokuphindaphindiwe imithetho ejezisa ukukhuluma okusekelwe ekuhlukunyezweni kwayo okucasulayo. R.V. v. iDolobha likaSt. Paul, i-1992, iNkantolo yachitha umthetho wendawo owenqabela ukuphana okuvuthayo okuvuthayo nezinye izimpawu ezivusa intukuthelo esekelwe ohlwini lohlanga, imibala, inkolelo, inkolo, noma ubulili. Inkantolo yathi umthetho usekelwe futhi awungenangangeni phakathi kwesigaba sokulwa okungavikeleki ngenxa yokuthi inqaba kuphela amazwi okulwa okushintshwayo okushiwo ezisekelwe ezinhleni. [FLG:] Matal. [F:] [F:] [5] [5] [ig.] [iK] [iK] [iK] [ik], (20]) iNkakhulu] iSivume iSivumelo semithetho esiqinile, iSivume i
Amanga Okungatholi Imininingwane Nokukhetha
Ukusakazwa kokwaziswa okungamanga, ikakhulukazi ngokhetho, kuphakamisa inselele enzima. Izinkantolo ziye zavumela imithetho ethile yokukhuluma amanga lapho kubangela umonakalo othile, njengokukhohlisa noma ukunyundela. Kodwa United States v. Alvarez[ (20202]), iNkantolo yabulala iStolen Vallor Act, okusho ukuthi ukwamukela izimendlela zempi okungamanga. INkanto yathola ukuthi umthetho awuthungelwanga ngokuncane futhi ukhona. Ukhetho oluhlobene nokhetho, luye lwakhipha imithetho emelene nokuthatha umvota okhiphi hlangothini noma ukusakaza izinkulumo ezingamanga zokuvota. Inkantolo ihlukene kulemithetho. Abanye baye bayisekela njengemigunya nokukhothozo yokukhomba nokuvota abanye. Imiphumela kabanzi ukuthi umthetho uveza ukukhohlolwa okunga okungaqondanisiwe noma ukukhohliwe.
Ukulinganisela Okuqinile: Ukulondeka Kwesizwe kuyaphikisana.
Umthetho We - espionga nabacuphi Bezicubu
Post9/11, ukungezwani phakathi kwe-Four Confincition ne-comment kuye kwakhula. Uhulumeni uye wasebenzisa uMthetho we-Espionage ukuze abeke iziphakamiso nabavuli bempelesi abaveza ukwaziswa okungahlelwa. Izinkantolo ngokuvamile zilalela izinqumo zegatsha eliphetheyo, okwenza kube nzima ngabamangalelwa ukuphakamisa iSiphetho Sokuqala sokuzivikela. United States v. Rosen[FLT][200] [200] [6], inkantolo yesifunda yakholelwa ukuthi i-Espionage Act ingasebenza kwi-lishini esemthethweni nesithiwamukelekile ulwazi lwesizwe, ngisho noma uma uma uma umamukeliswayo eyintatheli. Nokho, icala laphela ngokungafanele. Izinkantolo azikakhululeki ukuthi intatheli ingafaka imvume eyimfihlo ekuhlolweni kwezentengoleko yesizwe. Ize i-Athonsitude evikela izigwebo. I-mkhasi ye-nkani.
Imingcele Engaphambili Enkathini Yezinombolo
Icala le-Pentagon Papers lasungula ukumelana okukhulu nokuvinjelwa ngaphambi kokuba. Kodwa enkathini ye-Internet, ngaphambi kokuba inqanyulwe kungathatha izindlela ezintsha: iziyalo zenkantolo zokuthatha amabhukwana, amawebhusayithi okuvimbela, noma izindawo zokumisa izindawo. Ku-'National Security Letter[[[FLL:] [12], izinkantolo ziye zavumela i-FBI ukuba ikhiphe izimemezelo ze-National Security Letters (NTLS) ezineziyalezo ezingagunyazi. Nokho, ngemva kwezinselele, uhulumeni kuye kwadingeka ukuba kunciphelwe ukusetshenziswa kweNSLL. Izinkantolo zezembubhini futhi zicelwe ukukhipha okushiwo ukuthi i-protheidstionstions. Ngaphansi kwe-Act: [Foct.]
Ukukwazi Ukuya Ezinkantolo Nasemagqumeni Omphakathi
Ilungelo Lokunxusa Nokufinyelela Ubulungisa
Ilungelo lokunxusa uhulumeni livame ukunganakwa kodwa libalulekile. Lihlanganisa ilungelo lokufaka amafayili amacala, ukuthatha izintambo, nokufuna izivumo. ECalifornia Motter Co. v. Icala livikela ilungelo leziboshwa lokufaka izikhalo. [1972], iNkantolo yasekela ukuthi imfundiso kaNoer-Pennington ivikela imizamo yokuthonya isenzo sikahulumeni, ngisho nempimpi emelene nomthetho, ngaphandle kokuba imane izintambo. Inkantolo ivikela ilungelo leziboshwa lokufaka izikhalo. [[FLT:] [FLT:] [FLD] [FLT] [FON] [3] [7], iNkantolo yenkantolo enikeza imvume yokwamuphiswano-mthetho noma imvume engokomthetho yokuqinisekisa ukukhokha imvume. Iziboshwa ngokuvamile ihilela izinkantolo ngenxa yokukhokhiswa kwesivumelwano.
Izinkulumo Zomphakathi Nenkulumo Engokomfanekiso
Izikhungo zomphakathi ezingokwesiko njengemigwaqo, amabala, namapaki zivikeleke kakhulu ukuze kukhulunywe. Kodwa futhi izinkantolo ziyaqaphela umphakathi obizwa ngokuthi ama-cureator (umz., amakamelo okuhlangana kwasobala) kanye nama-fourm (umz., iziteshi zempi, iziteshi zezindiza zezindiza). Izinga lokuvikela kwenkulumo liyahluka ngohlobo lwe-Fum. [ku-Monnetaslyn Alliance v. Mansky[FLT] [2017], iNkantolo yeNkanto evimbela umthetho wezombangazwe evimbela imicimbi yezezombangazwe, ukuthola ukuthi ukuvinjelwa kwezikhulu akunakali ngokwanele futhi akunikezwangalawuli. Icala libonisa ukuthi ngisho nasezindaweni ezingahlelelwangangeni mvume yokuhlola (ukuhlola) imfutho, kumelwe ukuba nezindinganiso zikahulumeni zishale ngendlela ecacile, noma zifake amafule, phakathi nenkanga ye-odruption, njengoba kutholakala futhi kuhle kakhulu. [ephathiswa i-F] Ekuhlome engcono kakhulu
Isiphetho: Izinkantolo Njenge - Guardian Ephilayo
Indima yezinkantolo ekuvikeleni inkululeko yokuqala yeSichibiyelo inamandla futhi iyaqhubeka. Kusukela ekusungulweni komthetho wokuhlola kuya ekuqondiseni imithetho yezokuxhumana, izinkantolo ziyaqhubeka zivumelanisa izimiso zomthetho noshintsho lwezimo. Zinikeza imvume kubantu ukuba bagxeke uhulumeni ukuba bagxeke, bachaze umbhalo wokulungisa inqubo yezobuchwepheshe obusha, futhi basekele umqondo wesisekelo wokuthi ukuzilawula ngokwentando yeningi kudinga ukuhwebelana okukhulu kwemibono. Nakuba i-jadicadiary ingagonyelwa ukucindezela kwezombangazwe noma ukucwasana kwezenkolo, umklamo wayo wezenkolo, imiqondo yezenkolo esekelwe ekhonweni, futhi ibambelele ekuboneni isimilo esiqinile sendlela yokuqala yokuvikela inkulumo engathandeki. Njengoba izinselele ezintsha zokulawula ukuhlakanipha okujulile, ukuhlanganisa izigelekeqe, ukucukunga, nokuhlanganisa ukuhlanganisa izigelekeqe, nokuhlanganisa izinkantolo zezelelwa kwezekelele, lapho izinkantolo ezivini ezivini eziqinile ziyo ezivinjezelwe.