Inqubo efanelekile yisimiso se-lickrock yesimiso somthetho waseMelika, iqinisekisa ukuthi akekho umuntu oyophucwa ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla ngaphandle kobulungisa nomthetho. Lelilungelo eliyisisekelo lihlanganiswe kokubili ezinqubweni zesihlanu nezeshumi nane ze-Constitution ku-United States, ekha isihlangu esibili sokulwa nesenzo sikahulumeni somthetho ozimele. ISichibiyeli sesihlanu sisebenza inqubo efunekayo kuhulumeni kazwelonke, kuyilapho iSiphendulo seGajimende seshumi nane sinweba isivikelo esifanayo emithethweni ethathwa yizweni nahulumeni bendawo. Engxenyeni yaso, iqinisekisa ukuthi inqubo yobulungisa isebenza ngokubona bhaka, ukungakhethi, nokuhlonipha isithunzi somuntu ngamunye. Ayiwona umqondo owenziwe ngokuphelele kodwa awusebenzi wokuvikela okuvelayo ngezindinganiso zezehluleko nencazelo yokwahlulela.

Ukuziphendukela Kwemvelo Okungokomlando Kwenqubo Efanele

Izimpande ezihlakaniphile nezingokomthetho zenqubo efanele zibuye zibuye zibuye zibuye emuva emakhulwini eminyaka, zithathe kakhulu emasikweni omthetho wesiNgisi. Ingqophamlando edumile yakuqala yiMagna Carta ka-1215, eyathi eSahlukweni 39 imemezela ukuthi akukho muntu okhululekile ongaziboshwa, asuswe, noma athunjwe "ngaphandle kokwahlulelwa okungokomthetho kontanga yakhe noma umthetho wezwe". Le nkulumo — ingukhokhokhokho oqondile walokho manje esikubiza ngokuthi inqubo efanele. Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, izinkantolo zeNgisi nePhalamende zathuthukisa lezi sivikelo, ngokuphawulekayo ngeHabeas Corpus Act ka 1679, eyaqinisa ilungelo lomuntu ngamunye ukuba abeke inselele ukuboshwa okungekho emthethweni.

Lapho amakoloni aseMelika ememezela uzibuthe, ayephethe lomthetho ovamile nawo. Umthetho-sisekelo wakuqala wawuhlanganisa izigaba eziqinisekisa ukuthi akekho umuntu ongase aphucwe ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla ngaphandle komthetho wezwe. ISichibiyelo sesihlanu, sagunyazwa ngo-1791 njengengxenye yeSigqi Samalungelo Omthetho, sanikeza isimo esicacile somthetho-mthetho esingokomthetho enqubweni kahulumeni. Nokho, sasingaqalisi ukumiswa kwenqubo yeSiphendulo se 1450 ngo-1868, ngemva kweMpi Yomphakathi, leyo nqubo efanelekile yaba yi-sehlolo ngokomthetho wezwe. Ingxenye 1 yeSiphakamiso se-14491 seSichibiyeli edumile ivimbela ukuncishwa "noma isiphi isiphi isigaba sokuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo yomthetho engokomthetho we-octalmonetic transty.""" leli lungiselelo belilokhu liyilo liyindawo elilawula amalungelo amalungelo amanani abusayo eUnited States.

Emashumini eminyaka alandela, iNkantolo Ephakeme kancane kancane "yafaka" ingxenye enkulu yeBhili lamaLungelo ngokumelene nezifundazwe nge-Acted Procesme Claus yeSichibiyelo se-14. Le nqubo, eyaziwa ngokuthi i-Draexmential, iye yaqinisekisa ukuthi ohulumeni bahulumeni kumelwe bahloniphe amalungelo ayisisekelo afanayo nohulumeni ophethe, kuhlanganise nenkululeko yokukhuluma, ilungelo lokuphatha izikhali, kanye nesivikelo ekuhlolweni okungacabangeli nokuquleka.

Izinsika Ezimbili: Inqubo Ewugqinsi Neyisimiso Esifanele

Ukuhlaziya okufanelekile kwanamuhla kuhlukanisa lomqondo ube izigaba ezimbili ezihlukene kodwa ezihlobene: inqubo edingayo nenqubo eyisisekelo. Ukuqonda umehluko kubalulekile ekuqondeni ukuthi izinkantolo zisebenzisa kanjani inqubo yokuvikela ezimweni ezihlukahlukene.

Inqubo ejwayelekile

Inqubo efanelekile yokuhlelwa kwenqubo igxila kuma- nezinqubo uhulumeni kumelwe alandelwe ngaphambi kokuba aphuce othile ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla. Ifuna ukuba abantu bathole isaziso esanele sesenzo esithathwayo kubo, ithuba elinenjongo lokuzwakala, nesinqumo esithathwa yinkantolo engakhethi. Izimfuneko eziqondile ziyahluka kuye ngomongo, kodwa umqondo oyinhloko ukuthi kudingeka ukuba kube nenhlala-kanhle ngaphambi kokuba ukuswela kwenzeke.

Izakhi eziyinhloko zenqubo yokuhlelwa kweprocedro zihlanganisa:

  • Notice: Abantu ngabanye kumelwe batshelwe ngesenzo esihlongozwayo kanye nesisekelo okusekelwe kuso. Lesaziso kumelwe sibelwe ngokwesilinganiso ukuze sifinyelele kuleyo ethintekile, uma kunikezwa izimo.
  • Ukuzwa: Ngaphambi kokuncishwa kokuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, abantu ngokuvamile banelungelo lohlobo oluthile lokuzwa. Lokhu kungaba ukulingwa okuphelele kofakazi nokuhlolwa kophambano, noma ukuqulwa kwezwi kwesimiso sokuqondisa ngokwendlela isithakazelo esithintekile.
  • Umenzi wesinqumo ongakhethi: Isikhulu noma indikimba enquma ukuthi indaba kumelwe ingahlukaniswa futhi ingalwi. Lesimiso siyisisekelo selungelo kumahluleli ongathathi hlangothi noma isikhulu esizwayo.
  • Ekulungeni kubufakazi obukhona: Umuntu othintekile kumelwe avunyelwe ukuba anikeze ubufakazi namaphuzu evikela, futhi abhekane nobufakazi obungathandeki.
  • [ Ilungelo elulekweni: Ezimweni eziningi — ikakhulukazi ezicini zobugebengu — abantu ngabanye banelungelo lokumelelwa ummeli. Kwezinye izimo zomphakathi nakwezokuphatha, lelilungelo lingase lilinganiselwe kodwa liqashelwe kakhulu njengesidingo enqubweni elungile.

INkantolo Ephakeme yamisa uhlelo oluvumelanayo lokunquma ukuthi iyiphi inqubo edingayo ecaleni lika-1976 Mathews v. I-Eldridge. Ngaphansi kwalokhu kuhlola, izinkantolo zilinganisa izici ezintathu: isithakazelo somuntu siqu esithonywe yisenzo sikahulumeni, ingozi yokuncishwa okunephutha ngaphansi kwezinqubo ezikhona kanye nokubaluleka kokuvikela kokulawula okunokwenzeka, kanye nesithakazelo sikahulumeni ekusebenziseni kahle nezomnotho. Lendlela elinganiselwe ivumela inqubo efanelekile yokulungisa inqubo ye-proccodetic production elungiselelweni yecala ngalinye.

Inqubo Engeyona Inkinga

Inqubo efanelekile eyisisekelo impikiswano futhi ingumqondo omkhulu. Ivikela amalungelo athile ayisisekelo ekuphazanyisweni uhulumeni ngaphandle kokwahlukanisa izinqubo ezisetshenziswe, ngisho noma kunikezwa isaziso esiphelele nokuzwa okuhle. Ngamanye amazwi, amanye amalungelo abalulekile kakhulu enkululeko nasebulungiseni kangangokuthi uhulumeni akanakuwaphazamisa, ngaphandle kokuba unesiqinisekiso esiqinile.

Izimpande zenqubo efanelekile ye-actus ye-pactive project zisemqoka embonweni wokuthi i-Gradice Process ayivikeli nje kuphela inqubo kodwa futhi nemithetho eqinisekile engaphansi kwenkululeko [. Phakathi ngasekupheleni kwekhulu le-19 nesekuqaleni kwekhulu lama-20, iNkantolo Ephakeme yasebenzisa inqubo efanele ukushaya imithetho yezezomnotho, njengemithetho yehora eliphezulu nemithetho elinganiselwe, ezimweni ezifana i-Lochner v. [[[FLTLT:3]] v. [isikhathi] [i-190]. Lenkathi, eyaziwa njengenqubo [FLT] [FLD], yagxekwa kakhulu ngenxa yemibono yezezomnotho.

Nokho, iNkantolo yaqhubeka isebenzisa inqubo edingayo ukuze ivikele amalungelo ayisisekelo angewona angokomnotho. Kusukela maphakathi nekhulu lama-20, lemfundiso ibilokhu ibalulekile emacaleni aphathelene:

  • Ilungelo lokushada: Ku Lovang v. Virginia (1967), iNkantolo yaqeda ukuvinjelwa komshado wezinhlanga; Obergefell v. Hodges, ilungelo lokushada lanwetshwa kwimibhangqwana efanayo yeze-ex.
  • Ilungelo lokukhulisa abantwana: Abazali banelungelo eliyisisekelo lokuqondisa ukukhuliswa nemfundo yezingane zabo, eliqashelwa ku Pierce v. Society of Odenses[ [1925] kanye [FLT] Wissin v. Yoder[12]
  • Ilungelo lokusebenzisa ukuvimbela inzalo nokukhululeka ngokomzimba: [[FLT]] [[FLT]] i-Connecticut[ [65] yaqaphela ilungelo lemibhangqwana eshadile lokusebenzisa ukuvimbela inzalo; [[FLT]] Roe v. [[FLT:] [[FLT] [107]] [107]]) yanwebela leyondlela yokucabanga ngqqo yokukhetha ukukhishwa kwesisu — nakuba Dobs v. Jackson's Health Organization [[FLT:][FLT] [57] [2] [2] i-RT], ebambe ukukhishwa kwecala ngaphansi kwe-Genethilogo.
  • Icala elizimele nokuziphatha okusondelene:[ Inkantolo Livence v. Texas [2003] yashaya imithetho kahulumeni yesodoma njengephula inqubo edingayo, iqinisekisa ilungelo lokuhileleka ekuziphatheni kobulili kwangasese.

Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi inxusa abahluleli ukuba bafunde izinqubo zabo eMthethweni, kuyilapho abasekeli befuna ukuvikela inkululeko yomuntu ngamunye eziphathweni eziyinhloko.

Inqubo elindelekile enkambisweni phesheya kokuqamba okusemthethweni

Izimiso zenqubo yokulawula nokulawula isebenza cishe kuzo zonke izingxenye zomthetho lapho uhulumeni esebenza khona ekuthinteni izithakazelo zomuntu. Nansi indlela lezisivikelo ezisebenza ngayo ezindaweni eziyinhloko.

Umthetho Wesigebengu

Amalungelo enqubo avutha kakhulu emongweni wobugebengu ngoba izigxobo ziphakeme kakhulu: inkululeko yomuntu isengozini ngokuqondile. UMthetho-sisekelo udinga ukuba uhulumeni abonise zonke izici zecala ngaphandle kokungabaza okunengqondo, ukuthi abamangalelwa banelungelo lokuquliswa ngokushesha nangomphakathi yijaji elingakhethi, futhi ukuthi banelungelo lokuthola usizo lwezeluleko. Icala lesifunda [[FLT:] [0] Gedeon v. [[FFLT:1] [1963])) bakholelwa ukuthi abamangalelwa kumelwe banikeze ummeli ukuba amacala abhekene nezinsolo ezingenwayo, futhi kamuva landise lokhu kunoma isiphi isimo lapho isigwebo sihlanganisa khona. [FLT] [FF:]

Ngaphezu kwalokho, inqubo efanele ilawula inqubo yokunxusa, exazulula amacala amaningi kakhulu obugebengu. INkantolo iye yathi isicelo esinecala kumelwe singene ngokuzithandela nangokuhlakanipha, futhi abamangalelwa kumelwe baqaphele imiphumela eqondile yokunxusa kwabo. Isimiso sokulunga okuyisisekelo futhi siyakwenqabela ukusetshenziswa kobufakazi obuthile obutholakala ngokwephula inqubo efanele, njengokuvuma izono okuphoqelelwe ngamandla angokomzimba noma ngokucindezela okungokwengqondo.

Umthetho Wangaphakathi

Enqubweni yezenzweni zomphakathi, inqubo efanele idinga ukuba abantu bathole isaziso nethuba lokulalelwa ngaphambi kokuba uhulumeni athathe impahla noma isithakazelo esiphawulekayo. Lokhu kusebenza kabanzi: ngaphambi kokuqeda izinzuzo zenhlalakahle, ukuxosha i-parton ehlala umphakathi, noma ukukhipha imvume yokushayela, isaziso nohlobo oluthile lokuzwa kumelwe lunikezwe. Nokho, isikhathi esiqondile nesimo sokuzwa kungahluka. Kwezinye izimo, ukuzwa kwangaphambi kokukhubazeka kwenhlalakahle kuyadingeka; kwezinye, ukuzwa ngemva kwendlu ngezivikelo ezanele. Maws. Eldridge. v Ukulinganisela ukuhlelwa kwendlela yokugcinwa kwendlela yokukhubazeka kungokwenhlala, lapho kudingekile iNkathi enkantolo esobala kuzuzisa khona ukuvikelwa iNka.

Enye indawo ebalulekile ukuzibophezela komphakathi kwabantu abanesifo sengqondo. INkantolo Ephakeme ikholelwa ukuthi inqubo efanele idinga ubufakazi obucacile nobuqinisekisayo bobungozi noma ukukhubazeka okungathi sína ngaphambi kokuba umuntu avalelwe ngokungenanjongo. Lendinganiso, ithathwa ku- Addington v. Texas [1997]), iveza isithakazelo senkululeko esisesigxotsheni futhi iqinisekisa ukuthi amaphutha awakho ngokunokwenzeka ukuphucwa umuntu ngenkululeko yakhe.

Umthetho Oqondisayo

Izinhlangano zikahulumeni zisebenzisa amandla amakhulu phezu kwabantu ngezenzo zokulawula, ngokuhlela izinqumo, nangokuzuza izinqumo. Inqubo ifuna ukuba lezi zikhungo zisebenzise izinqubo ezilungile — ngokuvamile kuhlanganise nesaziso, ithuba lokunikeza ubufakazi, nesinqumo esicatshangelwe yi-atmodurator. I-Administrative Proceduture Act (APA) ihlanganisa eziningi zalezi zimfuneko zezinhlangano zikahulumeni, kodwa inqubo engokomthetho ibeka isakhiwo esifanelekile esingaphansi kwendlela i-APA engenakuhamba ngayo. Ngokwesibonelo, ekususweni kwezokufuduka, abantu ngabanye banelungelo lokuzwa phambi komahluleli wezokufuduka, ilungelo lokunikezwa iseluleko (ngasese ngemali yabo), futhi ithuba lokuveza ubufakazi obukhangayo noma obunye ukukhululeka. [FLD] RFM [2004], i-Sightighttivelkst Treaged Count [F], isikhulu seNkamperences, isikhulu seSikhathi seNkathi semvume esingokomthetho sokulwa kwesihle, futhi sivivinye isikhulu esiqinile sokulwa kwemvume sokulwa kwesikhulu, isikhulu

Imfundo

Abafundi ezikoleni zomphakathi banezithakazelo ezithile zempahla emfundweni yabo nasedumeleni labo. Ngenxa yalokho, iSichibiyelo seSiphendulo seshumi nane seSiphendulo se-Awrence Processol Claus sisebenza ezenzweni zesikole ezikhokhela ukuthumba noma ukuxoshwa. EGOS] nenqubo enciphile kakhulu yokulalela. I-Lopez[FLT:] [[FLT1] [19785], iNkanto ephakeme yeNkantolo isithi umfundi obhekene nenhlohlosekukhuni edelelwayo kuze kube izinsuku eziyishumi kumelwe anikezwe isaziso noma abhaliwe samacala aholela ekutheni amacala abekwe noma abekwe eqenjini yezemfundo ekhethekile. Inquluko yezemfundo ebanzi idingeka kakhulu.

Uphawu Lwecala Lenkantolo Ephakeme Luyehlisa Inqubo Efanele

Amacala amaningana eNkantolo Ephakeme aye athonya incazelo kanye nezinga lenqubo efanelekile. Ngezansi kunezibonelo eziyinhloko, ezihlobene nemithombo eyinhloko:

  • Gideon v. Wainwright[[FLT] [63] [1963]: imisiwe ilungelo lokululeka emacaleni obugebengu kahulumeni ngenxa yobugebengu obungamangalelwa, ihlanganisa iSimemezelo seSithandathu nge-Century Clause yeSichibiyelo se-Genetic.
  • Miranda v. Arizona (1966]]: Amaphoyisa afunekayo aluleka abasolwayo ngelungelo labo lokuthula nokuba nommeli phakathi nokuphenywa kwesigwebo, ukuvikela ilungelo leSichibiyelo sesihlanu ekuzinqumeleni ngokwawo nokuqinisekisa inqubo efanele.
  • [[IFLT:0] Ama-Mathews v. [6]: kwamiswa ukuhlola kokulinganisela okuthathu kokulinganisela kokunquma ukuthi iyiphi inqubo edingayo engokomthetho edingayo ezimisweni zokuphatha — indinganiso esasetshenziswa izinkantolo namuhla.
  • ROE v. [FLT][3] [77]): Yaqaphela ilungelo lowesifazane lokukhetha ukukhishwa kwesisu njengengxenye yelungelo lokungena yimfihlo ngaphansi kwenqubo edingayo (iphathiswe [FLT]]][FLT]]] Dobbs v. Jackson’s Health Organization [ [202] [20:2], , eyayikholelwa ukuthi ukukhishwa kwesisu akuyona isohlangothi lwesokudla].
  • Obergefell v. Hodges (2015): Waqaphela ukuthi iSichibiyelo seshumi elinesine sidinga izivumelwano ezigunyaziwe futhi ziqaphele imishado efanayo yezokuhlangana kwezwe, ihlala kuyo yomibili inqubo efanele nezindawo ezilinganayo zokuvikela.

Izinkinga Nezimpikiswano Zesikhathi Esizayo

Inqubo efanelekile iyaqhubeka isenkabeni yezindaba ezicindezelayo zomthetho nezezenhlalo. Impikiswano ephawulekayo yamanje ixhomeke ekuvikeleni kokuzivikela okungakholekiyo , imfundiso evikela izikhulu zikahulumeni enkathazweni yomphakathi ngaphandle kokuba zeqe amalungelo amisiwe angokomthetho noma angokomthetho. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi ukuvikeleka okufanelekile kululaza inqubo efanelekile ngokwenza kube nzima kubantu ngabanye ukuthola ukuvuselelwa kwemithetho elandelwayo, ikakhulukazi ezimweni ezimelene namaphoyisa. Inkantolo Ephakeme iye yabonisa ukuzimisela okuthile ukucwenga ngokomthetho noma umthetho ongokomthetho. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi ukuvikela komzimba kululaza inqubo ngokuyenza kube nzima ukuvuselelwa komthetho, ikakhulukazi ezimweni ezisezinhlangothini zamaphoyisa. Inkantolo ibonise ukuzimisela okuthile ukuthuthukisa le mfundiso kodwa ayiyiqedisilele.

Inqubo elindelekile enkathini yenombolo iphakamisa imibuzo emisha mayelana nezaziso kanye nokuzwa enkathini yokwenza kwemithetho-algorith. Ngokwesibonelo, izimiso ezizisebenzelayo eziphika izinzuzo, ukukhwabanisa kwefulege, noma izilinganiso ze-pagerglat zingasebenza ngaphandle kwezimiso ezibonisayo noma amathuba abalulekile abantu abathintekayo okuncintisana nomphumela. Izinkantolo ziphikisana ngokuthi izinqubo ezinjalo zihlangabezana yini nezindinganiso zenqubo yomthetho-mfashini, ikakhulukazi uma imininingwane engaphansi noma imithetho yemithetho i-proprietary noma ipective.

Isifo se-COVOID-19 esahlolwa ngezindlela ezifanele. Ama-vicoction virator, izikhungo zezempilo zomphakathi, kanye nenkantolo ekude konke kwaphakamisa imibuzo ngokulinganisela phakathi kokulunga kwe-productal nesidingo sokuthatha isinyathelo sikahulumeni ngokushesha. INkantolo Ephakeme ezinhlelweni eziningi zezinhlelo eziphuthumayo yabonisa ukuthi izingxibo zokuxoshwa kwezindawo azinakuwasusa amalungelo abanikazi abangenisi bempahla yabo, iphawula inqubo efanele.

Mhlawumbe indawo eqhuma kakhulu iyisikhathi esizayo senqubo efanele ye ngemva amaDobbs[. Ngokubuyisela umbuzo wokukhishwa kwesisu ezizweni, iNkantolo ephawulwe ukuthi akuwona wonke amalungelo abhekwa njengabalulekile ngaphambili angahlala evikelekile. Amanye amajaji aye abizela ukubuye aphinde ahlole ezinye inqubo ezifanele, kuhlanganise nalawo avikela ilungelo lokushada nokusebenzisa inqubo yokuvimbela inzalo. Iminyaka ezayo cishe ibone ukuthi amalungelo angahlolwanga kahle ahlala ehlolwa ngaphansi kwe "umkhondo nesiko" ahlolwe kahle. [FLT:] [FF:] [5] [FT] [5] Lenqubo engokwezimothene yemithetho esemthethweni kakhulu yaseMelika. Lenqubo yempi yaseMelika.

Isiphetho

Inqubo efanelekile ilokhu iyisisekelo somthetho waseMelika osemthethweni, ukuvikela abantu ekuvikelweni kombuso okuzimele futhi kuqinisekiswe ukuthi amandla kahulumeni asetshenziswa ngokufanele. Kungakhathaliseki ukuthi ngezindlela zokuvikela zezaziso nokuzwa noma ngesivikelo senkululeko eyisisekelo, i-Cest Procement Claussmes yeSigqi sesihlanu neseshumi nane ifeza indima ebalulekile ekulondolozeni umthetho. Lomqondo uye wabonakala uvumelana ngokuphawulekayo, usuka ezindaweni zomthetho zesiNgisi zangenkathi ephakathi kuya ezinkingeni zokuhlakanipha kokwenziwa kanye nezimo zempilo zembulunga yonke. Kubafundisi, ochwepheshe bezomthetho, nezakhamuzi ngokufanayo, inqubo edinga ukuqonda inqubo edingekayo — akubalulekile nje kuphela ukuba baqaphele iziqinisekiso zomthetho, kodwa ukuba bavikele.