Isingeniso: Ukungezwani Kwefilosofi Yokwahlulela Namalungelo Omthetho - sisekelo

Isimiso somthetho waseMelika sincike ekulinganiseni okubucayi phakathi kokunqanda ukwahlulela nezenzo zokwahlulela. Nakuba abahluleli kulindeleke ukuba bachaze umthetho, bangawadali, imfundiso yokufakwa ngokukhetha , inqubo iBill of Rights esetshenziswa ngayo kohulumeni bezwe, iye yabunjwa kakhulu abahluleli abathathe indima enzima ekuthuthukiseni isivikelo somthetho-sisekelo. Lesihloko sihlola indlela i-clivivism eshukumisele ngayo ukuziphendukela kwemvelo kwabakhethayo, iguqula isilinganiso esilinganiselwe sesivikelo sikahulumeni sibe isisekelo sesizwe senkululeko yomuntu ngamunye.

Izenzo zokwahlulela, ngokuvamile ezichazwa njengemithetho ebonisa izintando zomuntu siqu noma isimiso kunokuba kunamathele ngokuqinile esandulela noma umbhalo, ziye zanconywa futhi zagxekwa. Emkhakheni wokukhetha, ukuthatha inyathelo kuye kwasho iNkantolo Ephakeme edlulisela amalungelo akhethekile ezindaweni ngesisekelo secala, ngisho nalapho uMthetho-sisekelo wokuqala ungayalanga ngokuqondile ukusebenza okunjalo. Ukuqonda lenqubo kudinga kuqala ukuqonda ukuthi ikuphi ukuhlanganiswa okukhethayo nokuthi kungani kuyindaba.

Ukuchaza Ukukhetha

Isigaba esikhethelwe yimfundiso yomthetho-sisekelo evela kwiSichibiyelo seSikhawulo se-14 se-Access (Inqubo ka-Claus). I-gameter ithi akukho mbuso oyozi “hlupha noma yimuphi umuntu wokuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho.” INkantolo Ephakeme ichaze lokhu njengokuthi amalungelo athile ayisisekelo eBill of Rights“ afakwa” ngokumelene nezifundazwe [“injongo] nohulumeni bendawo kumelwe bawahloniphe njengoba nje kwenza uhulumeni wombuso. Nokho, iNkantolo ayizange isebenzise zonke izinguquko ngesikhathi esisodwa; kunalokho, ikhetha amalungelo athile akhethekile ngesikhathi, indlela eyaziwa ngokuthi asebenza ngokukhetha.

Lendlela ihlukile ngokuhlanganisa ingqikithi, eyayingenza wonke amalungiselelo eSigqebhezana samaLungelo asebenze ezindaweni. IJaji iHugo Black yasekela ukuhlanganiswa okuphelele kodwa yalahlekelwa impikiswano. Ukukhetha kwaphumelela, inikeza iNkantolo imvume yokunquma ukuthi yimaphi amalungelo “ayinkululeko emisiwe” (isisho esivela kuJustice Carbozo ] Palko v. Connecticut), futhi kanjalo ifanelwe ukugcinwa komthetho ngokumelene nezigodlo.

Izenzo zokwahlulela zingena endabeni ngoba isinqumo seNkantolo sokukhetha nokukhetha amalungelo ngokwaso siwukubusa. Izinkantolo kumelwe zinqume ukuthi yimaphi amalungelo ayisisekelo, futhi lesosahlulelo ngokuvamile sihilela ukuhlaziya umlando, isiko, nezindinganiso zanamuhla ngendlela engokokubaluleka.

Umlando Ogciniwe: Kusukela Ekubambeni Umthetho Kuya Ekuthatheni Icala

Inkathi kaDual Federalism (Pre - 1920)

Ngaphambi kwekhulu lama-20 leminyaka, iBill of Rights yasebenza kuhulumeni kahulumeni kuphela. INkantolo Ephakeme yabanjwa ku- Barron v. Baltimore (1833) [iSichibiyelo sesihlanu) asizange sibophe izigodlo. Lokhu kuhlukaniswa okuqinile phakathi kwezimbulunga zikahulumeni ne-omgamu kwabonisa ifilosofi yokuvinjelwa komthetho: izinkantolo ezibekelwe izishaya-mthetho futhi zagwema imithetho yesibili ngaphansi kwemithetho ye-Bill of Rights.

IReconstructuss [1] I-Reconstructon Conflutions [1] ikakhulukazi i-Gaumethth-eyeth ye-Gradition ngokufaka imingcele kahulumeni ezifundazweni, kodwa iNkantolo yaqala ukuyifunda incane. Izindlu zokubulala [1873]] [iiNkantolo], iNkantolo yawahlupha amalungelo noma ama-Immunion Claus, ishiya i-Sect Procesme njengemoto eyinhloko yokuthatha i-distation. Ngisho, ifuna “ingaqondileyo nengasese" i-past elungelweni “e kakhulu esocishini engoko nakuntumekelweni engoko nembeza wabantu bethu, ishiya i-Clace njengento ebaluleke kakhulu.”

I-Shift Iqala: Gitlow v. New York (125)

Inkathi yoshintsho yafika Gitlow v. New York, lapho iNkantolo Ephakeme yaqala khona ukusebenzisa ilungiselelo leSichibiyelo Sokuqala − inkululeko yokukhuluma / kwezifundazwe. Nakuba iNkantolo yasekela isiqinisekiso sikaGitlow sokunyathelisa i-socialist projecto, yamemezela ukuthi “inkululeko yokukhuluma neyokunyathelisa (iSichibiyelo Sokuqala) esivikelwe yiSiphendulo senkululeko yomthetho wenkululeko yenkululeko yomlomo ebekwe yiSishayamthetho-Roundation [1] iphakathi kwamalungelo omuntu siqu kanye ‘ nezindlela zokuvikela inqubo efanelekile yeGitlowth Demetermentation ukusuka ekukhubazekeni kwe-14555th Amendmentmentyweroundation eUnited States.””

Lamazwi abonisa isimo sokwahlulela esisha: iNkantolo yayizimisele ukuvikela amalungelo abantu ngokuzikhandla ezindinganisweni zikahulumeni, ngisho noma umbhalo weSichibiyelo sokuqala ukhuluma kuphela ngoKhongolo. Abagxeki babiza lokhu kuthatha isinyathelo ngoba iNkantolo yayifunda amalungelo angaphansi e-Century Proce Clause ngaphandle kokusekela okucacile kombhalo. Kodwa yavula umnyango wokuhlanganisa amacala.

Amacala Ayinhloko Akhipha Icala Lomthetho Ekukhetheni Ukuncintisana

Izinqumo ezilandelayo eziphawulekayo zibonisa indlela izinkantolo ezinamandla ezakha ngayo isakhiwo ngokukhetha. Icala ngalinye lalidinga ukuba amajaji anqume ukuthi ilungelo elithile libaluleke kakhulu yini kangangokuthi kumelwe lisebenze kuwo wonke umkhandlu wesishaya - mthetho wesifunda, umkhandlu wedolobha, nakuwo wonke amaphoyisa ezweni.

Mapp v.Ohio (1961): Umthetho we-Exclussion Slave Ibhekiswe e-States

Phambi , isivikelo seSichibiyelo sesine ekuphenyeni okungacabangeli nasekuqulekeni sasingaphoqelelwanga kubaphathi bombuso. Umthetho wokuhlukanisa (ukuvimbela) owenqabela ukusebenzisa ubufakazi obutholakele ngokungemthetho emacaleni . kuphela [ku-Wolf v. Colorado [1949]], iNkanto ekhomba yayithi nakuba iSiphendulo sesine ngokwaso sasisebenza, umthetho we-eyeyona eyayingabalulekile.

Kodwa ku-Mapp v.O., iNkantolo yaguqula uWolf futhi yabeka umthetho wokuhlukanisa kuzo zonke izifundazwe. UMahluleli Tom C. Clark waphikisa ngokuthi ngaphandle kwekhambi lokuzihlukanisa, ukuphenya okungacabangeli kuyoba “isimo samagama.” Lesinqumo sasiwumsekeli ngoba sawulawula kakhulu futhi sadala indinganiso yesizwe, ngokuphumelelayo yaphoqa izinkantolo zikahulumeni ukuba zamukele umthetho owenqabile. Abagxeki beNkadelela ibhentshi. Abasekeli bathi inkantolo yayithi kudingekile ukwenza i-Eyesine enengqondo.

Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): Ilungelo lokweluleka

Brady v. Brady (1942), iNkantolo yayinqume ukuthi iSichibiyelo sesithupha selungelo leseluleko esisetshenziswa ezimweni ezikhethekile kuphela (icala elikhethekile noma lapho abamangalelwa babesengozini kakhulu). Kodwa Gideon v. Wainr, iNkantolo yahlehlisa [[[FLT:]]] izibopho [[FLT:]] futhi ikholelwa ukuthi ilungelo lokunikeza iseluleko libalulekile futhi lisebenza kukho konke ukushunyaniswa kwecala.

Lesi sinqumo siyisibonelo esivelele somthetho wokwahlulela: iNkantolo yashintsha ingqondo yayo, yandisa izinga lesiqinisekiso somthetho-sisekelo, futhi yaphoqelela amazwe ukuba anikeze abamangalelwa abamangalelwa abangelwayo. Umphumela waba ukudutshulwa okukhulu kwezimiso zomthetho kahulumeni. Isinqumo asizange sisekelwe embhalweni omusha kodwa ekukhipheni futhi lokho “inkululeko” ekhona. UMahluleli Omnyama, owayengawamukelanga [umthetho], wabhala [[FLT:]] Gride [[FLT]], ephikisa ngokuthi “noma yimuphi umuntu ohoxiweyo enkantolo... ompofu kakhulu ukuba athole ummeli, akanakuqinisekiswa ngokunikezwa ukuqulwa." ngaphandle kokuba anikezwe iseluleko esilungile.

[[UMTH: 0] Miranda v.Arizona (1966: Izixwayiso zamaphoyisa nokuziphikisa

Ilungelo leSichibiyelo sesihlanu ngokumelene nokuzixazululela lafakwa [[FLT: 0] kuMalloy v. Hogan (1964]). Kodwa Mairanda v.[[FLT:][FLT]]] yaqhubekela phambili ngokufuna amaphoyisa ukuba azise amalungelo awo phambi kokuphenywa. INkantolo yadala umthetho we-procdedial procrations [“isixwayiso se-Miranda”] [=ukuvikela i-ilunga kwesokudla]. Lokhu kwakuyisenzo sokwahlulela ngesilinganiso esikhulu: iNkanto ebeka umthetho wonke amaqembu ezwe. Abagxeki bamangalela ukuthi iNkanto yayinendima yayo engaphezulu futhi yaze yaxosha. [5]

[[UMTL:0] McDonald v.Chicago (2010): Isichibiyeli sesibili

Muva nje, iNkantolo isebenzise iSichibiyelo sesibili sokugcina nokuphatha izikhali ezikhona ku- McDver v. Chicago. Eminyakeni emibili ngaphambili, kuyi-Pricurecure of Columbia v. [[FLT:] [[FLT]]] [2008] [iNkantolo], iNkantolo yaqaphela ilungelo lokudubula izibhamu ngaphansi kweSiphendulo sesibili, kodwa leyo sinqumo sabopha uhulumeni wezwe kuphela. [[FLTLT:]]] [[FLT:] [5], inani elingu-5], elalikholelwa ukuthi isokudla okuyisisekelo futhi lisebenza ukusho ngohlelo oluseMkhosi ka-Clauscast. Ukuphikisa kwe-octiverightics] ukuchaza kwe-octivestiveyment, ukuveza ubufakazi obungasimo oluqinile kakhulu lwesizwe ekwayo.

Indlela Izenzo Zokwahlulela Ezilawula Ngayo Ukuvumelana

Isenzo sokwahlulela sivumela ukuhlanganiswa ngokukhetha ngezindlela eziningi. Okokuqala, iNkantolo ivumela ukuba ichaze iSichibiyelo seSikhawulo seshumi nane sikaClaus sihlanganise amalungelo angaphansi kweSigqizo sika-Claus (esinjengelungelo lokuthola izinto zomuntu siqu ([]] iConnecticut, 1965) noma ilungelo lokushada (Obergefell v. Hodges, 2015]). Lezi akuzona izindaba eziqondile (ezisebenzisa izimo ezihlozo), kodwa zibonisa ukulandela okufanayo: ukufunda izimiso ezingokongamele ukuvikela inkululeko.

Okwesibili, ukwenza i-livinson yenza iNkantolo ikwazi ukulahla imithetho nemikhuba ephikisana nezindinganiso eziguquguqukayo zenkululeko. Ngokwesibonelo, lapho iNkantolo ifaka umthetho weSichibiyelo seSiphamiso sezwe esingu-8 esimelene nesijeziso sonya nesingavamile Robinson v. California [1962], yasebenzisa indinganiso kahulumeni yokukhipha isigwebo sobugebengu. Abahluleli bazimisele ukuthi isijeziso esithile sombuso (njengesiluthwa yizidakamizwa ezingemthetho) saphula “izindinganiso ezihambisana nezindinganiso ezibonisa intuthuko yomphakathi okhulayo.”

Okwesithathu, inqubo yokwahlulela ingasheshisa ijubane lokuhlanganisa. ngokomlando, iNkantolo yathatha isinyathelo ngokuthatha ijubane: kwathatha kusukela ngo-1975 kuya ku-1969 ukuhlanganisa eziningi zezinguquko zokuqala eziyisishiyagalombili. Kodwa eNkabeni yeWarren Court (1953-1969), i-actival icindezela isikhathi, ihlanganisa i-telligline yesine, yesihlanu, yeSishiyagalo Sesihlanu, neSishiyagamu-nye ngokuqhuma kwezinqumo. Ngaphandle kwamajaji abashisekeli benguquko, lenqubo yayingasengaphelelanga, futhi cishe ibe namalungelo ambalwa aqinisekisiwe ngokumelene nemibuso.

Izimpikiswano Nokugxeka

Ukuquliswa Ngokweqile Kokwahlulela

Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi izenzo zokwahlulela zilulaza ukubusa kwentando yeningi. Uma izinkantolo zibeka imithetho efanayo yesizwe ezifundazweni, zidlula izinqumo zezishaya-mthetho ezikhethiwe nakuziqeqeshela izifundazwe. Ngokwesibonelo, ngemva Gideon[ futhi [FLT:] [FLT]] [iii] Mapp] [, isho ukuthi kudingeka ichithe imali eyengeziwe kubavikeli bamazwe nakuqeqeshwa kwamaphoyisa. [=] Izazi ezithile ezingokomthetho ziphikisa ngokuthi i-volute kumele ukuba ifezeke ngamagunya noma ama-Imnocredius Clauslet [FLD] [FLD:] [FT] I-Case-Octive [FFF] [FF5] [F] [FT] [F] [F5] [EN]] [est Programme] [ectionssssssss] [ection] [ectiontions] [

Abashisekeli bezobuhlanga bakuqala njengoMahluleli uAntonin Scalia babevame ukugxeka ukuhlanganiswa komshisekeli njengengekho emthethweni. Ekuphikisani kwakhe uMcDonald, uScalia wabhala ukuthi iNkantolo akumelwe “isebenzise” amalungelo ayisisekelo; kunalokho, kufanele ibheke embhalweni nasemfundweni weSigqi seMiciso seMici yeMicikilisho yamashumi Amane. Waphikisa ngokuthi ulimi oluvulekile lwe-Cal Procesme Clace uhloselwe ukuvikela ukulunga okungagwegwegwegwesi, hhayi ukusebenza njengendlela yokuhlola okungahlulwa amajaji ukuba afake imibono yabo.

Ukuvikela Umthetho Wokwahlulela Esimweni Sokungavumelani

Abasekeli baphendula ngokuthi i-gastivalism iyisivikelo esidingekile ekubuseni kwemithetho ye-gconation noma kwezikhulu. I-Bill of Rights yaklanyelwe ukuvikela amalungelo eqembu elincane ekubuseni okuningi. Uma izinkantolo ziwayekelela kakhulu ukuba zikhiphe izishayamthetho, inkululeko eyisisekelo ingaqedwa. Njengoba uMahluleli uRobert Jackson ayaziwa, “ISigqi Samalungelo Amalungelo Abantu asisona isivumelwano sokuzibulala.” Abahluleli bomthetho baqinisekisa ukuthi akukho mbuso ongancisha umuntu inkululeko eyisisekelo echaza ilungelo lokuba izakhamuzi zaseMelika.

Ngaphezu kwalokho, ukuhlanganisa ngokukhetha kuye kwaba yimpumelelo engokoqobo. Kuye kwakha isisekelo esiqinile sesizwe senkululeko yomphakathi kuyilapho kushiya indawo yezindawo ukuze kwandiswe isivikelo. Ngokwesibonelo, imibuso inganikeza isivikelo esikhulu sokukhuluma esibanzi kunesidingo seSichibiyelo Sokuqala, kodwa ayinakwehla ngaphansi kwaleyo phansi. Izinqumo zomthetho ziye zavala ukuphamba okungalawulekiyo − njengokuhlushwa kwamaphoyisa brown v. Missississippi[[[FLD:]] [1936] phambi kokuba iSiphendulo sesihlanu sifakwe ngokusemthethweni `intemplazelo yeGambithiwe''''.

Imibuzo Yanamuhla Nemibuzo Engaxazululwanga

Namuhla, imfundiso ekhethayo iphelele kakhulu. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yafaka cishe wonke amalungiselelo eSiphendulo Sokuqala, sesine, sesihlanu, seSihlanu, nese-8h Isichibiyeli. Okuphawulekayo kuhlanganisa iSichibiyelo Sesibili (manje esihlanganisiwe ]] ), iSimemezelo sesithathu (esihlanganisa amasosha (angazange angenele kodwa angasifaki isikhashana), kanye neGrand Jury Clausle weSinyusi sesihlanu (esifakwe, ngakho - ke izigaba zingasebenzisa iziqu ezinkulu noma izimemezelo zokudlulisa). INkanto ayizange futhi ihlanganise ukuvikelwa kwecala lokulunga kwesizwe ezinkantolo. Ukuqulwa kwecala okunye ukumiswa kwezentengiselwa kwezinkantolo kuqhubeke ukuthi i-Penterne (imension) kufanele ihlanganiswe amalungelo elungeni.

Nokho, ifilosofi eyisisekelo yezenzo zokwahlulela isaphikiswa. Ukumiswa kwamajaji avuna ukuvinjelwa kungamisa ukunwetshwa okwengeziwe noma ngisho nokubuyiselwa emuva kwezenzakalo ezikhona. Ngokwesibonelo, ezinye izigebengu ezilandela inqubo ezilandelanayo ziye zafuna ukuchazwa kabusha kweSichibiyelo Sesibili noma umthetho wokuhlukanisa. Ikusasa lokusebenzisa inqubo yokwahlulela ngokukhetha lingase lixhomeke ekuzimiseleni kweNkanto ukuba iNkantolo isebenze noma inqandelwe ukuthatha izimpawu ezikhona.

Ngaphezu kwalokho, ukuvela “kwesivumelwano somthetho” njengendlela ecwengisisiwe kakhulu kune-ctrivism ephakathi kusikisela indlela ephakathi: izinkantolo kufanele ziwavikele ngenkuthalo amalungelo omthetho-sisekelo acacile ngaphandle kokuhileleka ekwenzeni izimiso. Loluhlelo, oluye lwasekelwa uMahluleli uClarence Thomas ngokwemibono ethile, lungasusa ukuhlanganiswa kwencazelo yokuqala yamaGalemente e 147 noma ama-Immunions Claus. Uma luthathiwe, lungashintsha amalungelo ahlanganisiwe futhi lusetshenziswe kabanzi.

Isiphetho: Ukucindezeleka Okuhlala Kukhona Emnyombweni Womthetho WaseMelika

Isenzo sokwahlulela siye saba amandla ayinhloko ekulolongeni ukuhlanganisa ngokukhetha. Kusukela ku GITY ukuya ku[FLT:]McDonald[, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yathatha indinganiso engaphezulu kakhulu ekudluliseleni amalungelo kahulumeni ezakhamuzi, ngokuvamile ngokumelene nezifiso zohulumeni. Lenqubo iye yandisa inkululeko yomuntu ngamunye, yahlanganisa isizwe ngezindinganiso ezifanayo zomthetho-mthetho, futhi yavikela eqinile leyo manje amaMelika ayisebenzisa njengeyo.

Nokho umbango phakathi kokwahlulela nokunqanda ukwahlulela ngeke uxazululwe ngokugcwele. Ukukhetha kudinga abahluleli ukuba benze izahlulelo ezibaluleke kakhulu zenkululeko − umsebenzi ohilela ifilosofi yomuntu siqu ngokungenakugwenywa. Noma umuntu ubheka lokhu njengokusetshenziswa okuhloniphekile komthetho wokwahlulela noma ukubuswa okungekho emthethweni kwamandla entando yeningi kuxhomeke emibonweni yomuntu ebanzi yokuchaza umthetho-sisekelo. Okungaphikwa ukuthi ngaphandle komshisekeli womshisekeli, iBill of Rights iyakuba yincwadi yombuso, ishiye amaMelika amaningi engenazo isivikelo esibalulekile kuhulumeni.

Ukuze ufunde ngokwengeziwe, hlola ukucubungula kwe- iproject ye-Oyez yezindaba, i- Cornell Legional Information Institute [ yokuhlolwa kwemfundiso, kanye ne [[FLT] Melika] Bar Association yezehlakalo eziyingqophamlando [[ umkhondo wokwaziswa. Le mithombo inikeza ukuqonda okujulileyo ngokuthi izenzo zokwahlulela ziyaqhubeka kanjani ukuhlela incazelo yenkululeko yomthetho-sisekelo eUnited States.