Isisekelo Senqubo Efaneleyo EMthethweni WaseMelika

Umqondo wenqubo efanele usebenza njengesisekelo senqubo yenqubo yenkantolo yaseMelika, uqinisekisa ukuthi akekho umuntu oncishwa ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla ngaphandle komthetho osemthethweni. Nakuba le nkulumo ivela kokubili ezinzibeni zesihlanu nezeshumi nane, incazelo yayo iye yalolongwa kakhulu incazelo yeNkantolo Ephakeme phakathi kwamakhulu amabili eminyaka. Ukuziphendukela kwemvelo kwenqubo efanele kubonisa ukungezwani okuqhubekayo phakathi kwegunya likahulumeni namalungelo abantu ngabanye, kanye namacala angokomthetho aguqula imingcele ecacisa imingcele yokulunga.

Inqubo ayiyona imfundiso esendaweni. Ihlanganisa kokubili isivikelo se-procedal , i-meotary, inkantolo engakhethi---"nesiqiniseko esivikela amalungelo athile ayisisekelo ekuphazanyisweni uhulumeni. INkantolo Ephakeme isekela njalo ukuthi inqubo efanele ingumqondo ovumelana nezimo, ovumelanisa nokushintsha izindinganiso zezenhlalakahle nesimo sezithakazelo ezisengxengweni. Ukuqonda indlela lezimiso eziye zasetshenziswa ngayo kudinga ukuhlolwa kwamacala aphoqelelwa iNkanto ukuba isho ukuthi inqubo efanelekile ifunani enqubeni eqondile.

Imvelaphi Engokomlando: Kusukela EMagna Carta Kuya EMthethweni - sisekelo

Inkulumo ethi "ukuqhubekela phambili kwenqubo yomthetho" yavela okokuqala eMagna Carta ka-1215, eyathi: "Akukho muntu okhululekile oyobanjwa noma avalelwe ejele... ngaphandle kwesahlulelo esingokomthetho sabantu abalingana naye noma ngomthetho wezwe" Emakhulwini eminyaka, umthetho ovamile waseNgilandi waguqula lo mbono waba isiqinisekiso senqubo elungile. Amakoloni aseMelika azuza lelisiko futhi alifaka kuBill of Rights. ISimemezelo seSigqi seSigqi (1791) savimbela ngokuqondile uhulumeni wezwe ukuba uncise noma yimuphi umuntu wokuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla "engenayo inqubo efanelekile yomthetho." Ngemva kweMpi ye-Chube, iSimende se-Geneth (1868) yandisa lomthetho) lemithetho efanayo futhi yafaka kumazwe, yenza indawo ebanzi yesizwe yokufuna ukulawulwa komthetho.

Ingxenye enkulu yekhulu leshumi nethoba, iNkantolo Ephakeme yachaza inqubo efanele ngokucubungula, igxila ngokuyinhloko ekusebenziseni inqubo engokwesiko. Inkathi yeLochner (1905-1937) yabona iNkantolo isebenzisa inqubo efanelekile ukuze ishaye imithetho engokomnotho, kodwa leyo nqubo yalahlwa kamuva. Ukuqonda kwanamuhla kwenqubo efanele kwavela kumalungelo esizwe eKharren Court nenqubo yobugebengu, okwabangela ukuba kunyuke amacala amaningi achaza indawo yethu engokomthetho manje.

Inqubo Engokwesayensi Elindelekile: Ilungelo Lokuzwiwa

UKelly (1970)

Nakuba ingahlanganisiwe esihlokweni sokuqala, Goldberg v.Kelly kubalulekile ukuqonda inqubo elindelekile yanamuhla. INkantolo yathi ngaphambi kokuba isifunda siqede izinzuzo zenhlalakahle yomamukeli, kumelwe inikeze ukuzwa okusobala. Lesi sinqumo sisungulwe ukuthi inqubo edinga inqubo enengqondo idinga ithuba lokuzwakala noma nini uhulumeni ephuca umuntu isithakazelo esivikelekile, ngisho nalapho leso sithakazelo siyimfanelo egunyazwelwe kunempahla eyindabuko. Icala eliveze ukulinganisela okuqhubeka nokuhlola okufanele: inkantolo ilinganisa isithakazelo somuntu siqu, ingozi yokulahlekelwa okungamukeleki ngezimiso ezikhona, nenzalo kahulumeni engokwenzuzo.

Loluhlelo lwezici ezintathu, oluhlelwe ngokusemthethweni [iNkantolo] yamaMathews v. Eldiridge (1976), luye lwaba indinganiso yokunquma ukuthi iyiphi inqubo efanele ngokomthetho ngokomthetho. [Ku-Mathews[, iNkantolo yasebenzisa ukuhlola kokukhubazeka kwe-Social Security [197] futhi yaphetha ngokuthi ukuzwa kwangaphambi kokuhlelwa kwenkathi kwakungadingenzeki lapho ukubukezwa komthetho kufanelekile. Isinqumo sacacisa ukuthi inqubo ayikona okuqinile kodwa ayikona ukuhlola okuqinile kodwa ukugcinwa enqulwini.

EGault futhi (1967)

Ngaphambi kwe GEAURY, ukuqulwa kwenkantolo yezingane kwakuyiziphetho zezethukela futhi ngokuvamile kwakunqatshelwa. INkantolo Ephakeme yayilahla leyondlela, ibusa ukuthi intsha emangalelwe ngobuhlongandlebe ithola amalungelo afanele okuhlanganisa isixwayiso samacala, ilungelo lokumelana nokuzibeka isigwebo somuntu ngokwakhe, nethuba lokubhekana nofakazi abamelene ne-examine. Lendaba yandisa isici esiyinhloko sesivikelo sobugebengu kubantu ababephethwe njengezindawo zokuvikela umphakathi ngaphambili, iqaphela ukuthi imiphumela yentsha yokuzisola ingaba yingozi njengesijeziso sezephula umthetho.

Ifa le Gault lisobala esimisweni sokwahlulela sobusha sombuso ngasinye. Kubonisa futhi indlela efanele yokuguqula inqubo ihlanganise amaqembu abekwe ngokwezinga eliphansi ngaphambili. INkantolo yacabanga ukuthi "iSichibiyelo seshumi nane noma iBill of Rights singesabantu abadala kuphela," isimiso esiqhubeka sibumba amacala ahilela izingane, iziboshwa, kanye neminye imiphakathi esengozini.

Isu Lesigebengu Nelungelo Leseluleko

UGideon (1963)

Isihloko sokuqala siqokomisa Gideon njengesibonakaliso sengqopha - mlando. Icala lavela lapho uClarence Earl Gideon, isiboshwa saseFlorida, enxusa iNkantolo Ephakeme ngemva kokunqatshelwa ummeli ngoba wayengenakukwazi ukukhokhela enye. INkantolo yavumelana ngokuthi ilungelo leSimemezelo seSiphakamiso seSithandathu sokwahlulela liyilungelo elibalulekile elisebenza kumazwe ngeSimemezelo seSisekelo seMnyango sika-145 . Umbono kaHugo Black wagcizelela ukuthi "esimiso sethu sokwahlulela kobugebengu, noma imuphi umuntu ohoxiwe enkantolo, ongafanele kakhulu ukuba akhokhe ummeli, akanakuqinisekiswa ukuqulwa okulungile ngaphandle kokuba anikezwe iseluleko esinikezwa yena."

Gideon yahlehlisa isinqumo seNkantolo yangaphambili ku-'. Brady (1942), eyayivumele izigungu ukuba zinqume ukuthi zimise iseluleko esisekelwe ecaleni-socansini. Isinqumo saholela ekudalweni kwezimiso zomphakathi ezweni lonke futhi samisa ilungelo lommangalelwa eliqinile lokunikeza iseluleko kuzo zonke iziteshi zobugebengu. Icala elilandelayo liye lacwenganisa ilungelo lokuhlanganisa ukuncedwa, ukugwetshwa, ukunxusa, nokunxusa kokuqala, nakuba izinga lokumeleka liseyinselele inselele.

Miranda v. e - Arizona (1966)

Izindaba ezimbalwa zifana nezempucuko imanda v. iNkantolo Ephakeme yanquma ukuthi ukuphenya ngenkani kuhilela ukuphoqeleka, nokuthi ilungelo leSichibiyelo Sesihlanu ngokumelene nokuzibeka imingcele. Izixwayiso ezijwayelekile ```ilungelo lokuthula', ukuthi noma yini eshiwoyo ingasetshenziswa kuwe, ilungelo lommeli, nelungiselelo leseluleko uma ungakwazi ukukhokhela umuntu, kuhloselwe ukuvikela amalungelo akhe ngokungazi. IJaji Elikhulu u-Earl Warren labhala ukuthi "inkantolo ingase ingasebenzisi izinkulumo, noma ukuqapha, ukuthi ingasetshenziswa ekuncipheni ummeli, i-jajini ngaphandle kokuba ibone ukuthi i-ecmin

[[FLT: 0] [[FLT:] Mira isixwayiso siye saba yingxenye evamile yenqubo yamaphoyisa, nakuba iNkantolo iye yaqopha ngaphandle njengokuvinjelwa komphakathi ( New York v. Quarles[, 1984]) futhi yavumela ukuphenywa okulinganiselwe ngaphandle kwesixwayiso sokuma kwemidanti evamile. Naphezu kokugxeka komthetho kanye namajaji, [[FLT:] Marada] ihlala iyinsika yenqubo efanele engokomthetho wobugebengu, iqinisekisa ukuthi umthwalo uhulumeni ukuqinisekisa ukuthi ukuvuma ngempela.

Izindaba Zezigebengu Ezikhethekile Ezikhethwayo

  • Mapp v.O.1961] — Isebenzisa umthetho oweqa izifundazwe, ivala ubufakazi obutholakala ngokuhlola okungacabangeki nokuquleka.
  • Terry v.O.1968] — Imvume "Yeka kanye ne frisk" ukuphenya okusekelwe ekusoleni okunengqondo, ukulinganisela amalungelo eSichibiyelo sesine nokulondeka kwesikhulu.
  • Babatson v. Kentucky (1986) — abashushisi abacushiwe ngokusebenzisa izinselele zokukhulula abahluleli abasekelwe ebunhlangeni, basekela isivikelo esilinganayo namalungelo okuqulwa kobulungisa.

Inqubo Eyisisekelo Elindelekile: Ukuvikela Inkululeko Eyisisekelo

URade (1973)

Isihloko sokuqala sihlanganisa Roe v. kodwa iNkantolo yaqaphela ilungelo lomthetho-sisekelo lokwahlukanisa ngokwenkululeko ebanzi ngokwaneleyo ukuhlanganisa isinqumo sowesifazane sokuqeda ukukhulelwa. Lelolungelo labekwa eMthethweni we-Celasme yeSichibiyelo se-145, iNkantolo evikela "inkululeko esekelwe emqondweni wenkululeko emisiwe". Umthetho ka-Harry Blackmun uveza ilungelo lokufihla icala ngecala lomshado, ukuzala, nokuvimbela inzalo, uphethe ukuthi isithakazelo sombuso ekuphileni esiba namandla sivikela "amasuntrain" akhona kuphela ngemva kokuba khona.

[[FLT: 0] [[FLT:] ingenye yezindlela zokuzivivinya eziyimpikiswano kakhulu zenqubo efanelekile. Yashintshwa [ i-Casey / (1992], eyathatha indawo ye-meterreference ngesilinganiso "umthwalo onzima", futhi ekugcineni yabekwa umthetho [[FLT:]]] iDobbs v. Jackson’s Organization Health [[FLT:]] 2022], eyayikholelwa ukuthi umthetho-mthetho awufaki indiva ekukhipheni ukukhishwa kwesisu futhi ubuyisela indaba esholo. Inkulumo engaphezulu [[FLD:] [FLT]] [FLT]][5] [5] iveza indlela efanelekile yokuzigculisa amajajinga: [FLT]] amajajinga] amajaji ahlala kuyo: [202]]) izilinganiso zomuntu siqu, ezithi ezithi ezithi ezithi ezithini ezithi ezithi ezithi ezithi ezithiyo. ezithi

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

Isihloko sokuqala siphawula kahle ukuthi owehlayo wabhalisa umshado ongowesilisa ezweni lonke. Inkantolo yakholelwa ukuthi ilungelo lokushada liyilungelo eliyisisekelo ngaphansi kwe-Curvement Proces and Ulweloates. UMahluleli uAnthony Kennedy wagcizelela ukuthi umshado uyisihluthulelo sokuhleleka kwezenhlalo, okubalulekile esithunzi somuntu ngamunye nasenkanzweni yokuzibusa. Isinqumo sincike enqubeni efanayo yokucabanga okungadingekile okusetshenziswa [[FLT:]] i-Loving v. [FLT] Virginia [197] [197]], eyahlasela ukuvinjelwa komshado okungokwezelelwe kwezinhlanga, kanye [FLT:].[FLT] v [FF]

Ithonya le obergefel lidlulela ngalé kokulingana komshado. Yaqinisekisa ukuthi i-Secreate Procession Claus ivikela "izinqumo zomuntu siqu ezisemqoka esithunzini nakuzibuse," ukuhlelwa okuye kwasetshenziswa ezimweni ezihilela amalungelo abazali, ukwenza izinqumo zezokwelapha, nokuthembeka komzimba. Isinqumo futhi sibonisa ukuhlanganisa phakathi kwenqubo efanele nesivikelo esifanayo: kuyilapho iNkanto ehlaziya womabili amabinzana, inqubo efanelekile engaphansi kwesibopho esinikezwa isisekelo sokwazisa ilungelo.

Izindlela Ezingeziwe Zokwenza Inqubo

  • Lovang v. Virginia (1967) — Ukuvimbela imingcele yobuhlanga emshadweni njengokuphula inqubo efanele nesivikelo esilinganayo.
  • LAWREnce v. Texas (2003) — Yadlula umthetho we-sodomiya yase Texas, iqaphela ukuthi abantu abadala banenqubo efanele yokuhlanganyela ekuziphatheni kobulili kwangasese.
  • Shashington v. Glucksberg (1997) — wenqatshwa inqubo efanele yokusiza ukuzibulala, kulinganiswa ukwanda kwenqubo edingayo enqubweni enciphile kumalungelo "asekelwe ngokujulile emlandweni nasesikweni salesi sizwe."

Lapho Inqubo Engokwemvelo Neyisimiso Esivamile Ihlangana Khona

Akuwona wonke amagalelo alingana kahle nohlobo lwe-procedal noma olungaphansi. [FT:] Mathews v. Eldidge shaddles zombili: isungula ukuhlolwa kokulinganisela, kodwa izitha zivikela, kodwa inqubo edingayo (‘inzuzo). Ngokufanayo, i-Hamdi v. Rumsteld (2004) ihilela u-U.S. isakhamuzi esivalelwe njengendlela yokulwa nesitha. INkantolo yayifuna ukuba umgcini we-nkambiso ofanele athole isaziso esiqondile sesinqumo sakhe kanye nethuba lokuncintisana phambi kwesinqumo sokungatha. Isikhuluminye sempi, isibonisi ngisho nesezikhathi zempi, isikhululo sesizwe sesizwe sesizwe sesizwe sesizwe.

Enye imigwaqo isuka ku- Boumediene v. Bush (2008), lapho iNkantolo yayithi iziboshwa eGuantanamo Bay zinelungelo lomthetho-sisekelo le-habeas corpus/a inqubo efanele ukuvikela [1] ngisho noma zazibekwe ngaphandle kwezwe lase-U.S. Isinqumo siqiniswe ukuthi inqubo efanele ayiyona nje indlela yezwe; inamathela noma nini lapho inqubo kahulumeni ilawula umuntu.

Indinganiso Ethinta: Izinselele Zangesikhathi Esidlule

Inqubo eqhubekayo iyaqhubeka iguqukela ekusabeleni ekuphenduleni kobuchwepheshe obusha nezinguquko ze-social. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yabambana nendlela izivikelo ezingokwesiko ezisebenza ngayo enkathini yonyaka. Ngokwesibonelo, Riley v. California (2014] ikholelwa ukuthi amaphoyisa ngokuvamile adinga isiqinisekiso sokuhlola okuqukethwe umakhalekhukhwini owenziwe ukuze abanjwe, ngoba amakhalekhukhwini anezilinganiso ezinkulu zemininingwane yomuntu siqu. IJaji elikhulu uRoberts libhala ukuthi "iqiniso lokuthi ubuchwepheshe manje buvumela umuntu ukuba athwale ukwaziswa okunjalo esandleni sakhe akwenzengakufanelenga lutho olufanele isivikelo sabasunguli bempi." Lokhu kucabanga ukuthi imfuneko yezentethelelo yesine isemthethweni, kodwa isebenzisa inqubo enengqondo evumelana nezimiso ezifanele: isaziso, ukuvuma nokuvumelana kwezimiso zikahulumeni.

Ngokufanayo, inqubo efanele iye yavela ngenxa yezinqumo zezinhlangano zokuqondisa, imithetho yezenhlalo yezokusebenza, kanye nokuhlakanipha kokuzenzela okusetshenziswa ekugwebeni. Izinkantolo zicelwa ngokwandayo ukuba zinqume ukuthi iyiphi inqubo efanelekile uma i-algorithm yenza izinqumo ezithinta inkululeko, ukubolekisana, noma umsebenzi. Nakuba kungekho cala leNkantolo Ephakeme eliye lazisingatha ngokuqondile izinqumo ezifanele kuhulumeni we-Al-Dindern, izinkantolo eziphansi ziqala ukulwisana nezindaba zokukhanya, ubandlululo, nelungelo lokubekela inselele iziphumo ze-algorics.

Umqedazwe we-CUTY we-COVID-19 futhi wahlola inqubo efanele. I-Eviction Moratoria, imiyalelo, nemingcele ephuthumayo emibuthanweni yomphakathi konke kubangela ukumangalelwa okuthi inqubo ye-procedential ne-athostin yaphulwa. INkantolo ngokuvamile yayekwa iqondiswe kuziphathimandla zezempilo zomphakathi kodwa ngezikhathi ezithile yathola ukuthi izinyathelo eziqondile zedlulela kude kakhulu, njengaku- i-Roman Catholic Diocese of Brooklyn v. Cuomo, eyahlasela imingcele yemisebenzi ezinkonzweni zenkolo. Lezimo zecala zibonisa ukuthi inqubo ayifanele ayiyona indlela yokusebenza esikhathini esidlule kodwa okumelwe isetshenziswe ezimweni ezisezingenisweni.

Ithonya Emfundweni Yasemthethweni Nezentengiselwano

Uphawu olufanele lwenqubo yizimo eziyinhloko zezifundo zesikole zomthetho. Bafundisa abafundi hhayi nje kuphela imithetho eqondile kodwa nendlela yokuchaza umthetho-sisekelo: indlela yokulinganisela izifiso, ukuchaza amalungelo ayisisekelo, nokuhlukanisa phakathi kwemiyalo ehlukile ye-procedtura. Lezi zimo zinikeza amathuluzi abameleli. Amathews ukulinganisela kusetshenziswa njalo ngabameli abacela inselele, izigwebo zesikole, ngisho nezingalo zesikole. Inqubo ephambili yenqubo efanelekile inxuswe abamele amalungelo okuzala, ukulingana komshado, ukulingana nomthetho wombuso.

Ngaphandle kwenkantolo, lemithetho iye yakhuthaza izinguquko zemithetho. Ngokwesibonelo, imibuso yaguqula izimiso zayo zobulungisa zabantwana ngemva GEURD, ibukeze imikhuba yokuphenya yamaphoyisa ngemva imanda[, futhi yandisa izinhlelo zomphakathi ngemva [ko-[FLT:] [[FLT]] [[FLT]] [[FLT]] [[FLT]]]. Amacala abuye athonya imikhuba yokuphenya kwamalungelo abantu emhlabeni wonke, namazwe amaningi amukela isivikelo esifanayo kubamangalelwa namaqembu agxekayo.

Isiphetho: Inqubo Enamandla Efanele

Inqubo efanelekile yeNkantolo Ephakeme ayiyona iqoqo lezimpendulo ezilungisiwe kodwa iyisimiso sokubuza imibuzo elungile. Kusukela ezimfunekweni zesaziso zakuqala nokuzwa ezivikelweni ezinkulu zenqubo edingayo, iNkantolo iqaphele ukuthi ukulunga akunakuncishiswa endleleni emisiwe. Amacala alandelanayo anjenge , [indlela], [i-FLT], , [[FLT:]], [indlela yokuphatha] i-RO], kanye [FLT] ne-[FLT] [FLT] [FL:5] [[5] [[FLT]] [5] [7]] .I-FFLT] .

Njengoba umphakathi uqhubeka ushintsha ngobuchwepheshe, izimiso eziguquguqukayo zempucuko, kanye nenqubo engalindelekile izohlala iwumkhakha wokuncintisana okusebenzayo. Ukuzimisela kweNkantolo Ephakeme ukuphinde ilandele isibonelo, njengoba kubonakala ku amaDobts[, agcizelela ukuthi ngisho nemithetho egujwa kakhulu ingabekelwa inselele. Nokho inqubo engcono kakhulu iyaqhubeka: wonke umuntu, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi izimo zakhe, unelungelo lokuphatha kahle ngaphansi komthetho. Ukuqonda izindaba eziye zakha leli themba akudingekile kuchwepheshe abangokomthetho kuphela kodwa nakuzo zonke izakhamuzi ezifisa ukuvikela amalungelo emthetho.

Eminye Imithombo Yengcebo

  • [[UMTL:0] Iproject ye-Oyez – Umsindo nokufushaniswa kwamacala eNkantolo Ephakeme.
  • [[[NT:0] I-Cornell Legin Information orgol – ukucubungula okucacile kwemfundiso.
  • I-Pudicary: Icala le-Landmark – izinto zokufundisa ezinqunyweni eziyinhloko zeNkantolo Ephakeme.
  • Umthetho-sisekelo we-United States: A Guide and Commentary – Ukukhomba okufinyelelwe kwezimiso zomthetho-sisekelo.