Izincwadi Zamalungelo Abantu: Isisekelo Sokulingana

Izinguquko zokuqala eziyishumi kuMthetho-sisekelo, ezaziwa ngokuthi iBill of Rights, zagunyazwa ngo - 1791. Lezi zinguquko zaklanyelwa ukuvikela inkululeko yomuntu ngamunye nokulinganisela amandla kahulumeni. Zabeka isisekelo sokuqonda kwethu ukulingana nobulungisa ngezindlela eziningi.

ISichibiyelo Sokuqala sivikela inkululeko yokukhuluma, inkolo, ukunyathelisa, ukuhlangana, nokunxusa. Leli qembu lamalungelo liqinisekisa ukuthi wonke amazwi, kuhlanganise nemibono emincane, angazwakala emphakathini. Ngaphandle kwalesivikelo, ukulwela ukulingana bekungeke kube neqophelo elidingekile lokuthola ukuqashwa kwemithetho. ISichibiyelo sesine sivikela ukuphehlwa kokuphenya okungenangqondo nokuqubuka, simisa isisekelo esisebenza ngokulinganayo kubo bonke abantu, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi isimo sikhona. ISichibiyelo sesihlanu siqinisekisa ilungelo lenqubo efanelekile nesivikelo ekuziphatheni ngokwaso, siqinisa umqondo wokuthi izinqubo ezingokomthetho kumelwe zibe nokungaguquguquki. ISiphakamiso sesishiyagalombili sivimbela ukuphaza izigwebo ezingemthetho ezibonisa unya nesijeziso esingajwayelekile, simisa isilinganiso esilawula isimo esivimbela ukuphatha abantu esimweni esihlazisayo.

Lezi zinguquko zazingezona nje izinhloso ezingekho; zaziyizimpendulo eziqondile ezikhalo zamakoloni ngaphansi kokubusa kweBrithani. Abaqondisi baqonda ukuthi ngaphandle kwesivikelo esicacile, uhulumeni ungawanyathela kalula amalungelo abekwa eceleni. Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, iBhili yamaLungelo liye ladluliselwa embusweni ngeSiphendulo se - Screate Process Claus, inqubo eyaziwa ngokuthi i-project Claus. Lokhu kusho ukuthi umbuso nohulumeni wendawo kumelwe bahloniphe futhi lenkululeko eyisisekelo, kwakha isakhiwo sohlelo olufanayo lwamalungelo ezweni lonke.

Ngokwesibonelo, icala leNkantolo Ephakeme Mapp v. Ohio (1961) yasebenzisa umthetho wokuhlukanisa ezinkantolo zikahulumeni, iphethe ukuthi ubufakazi obutholakala ngokuhlola okungenangqondo abunakusetshenziswa enkantolo. Lesi sinqumo saqinisekisa isithembiso seSiphendulo sesine sokuvikelwa ngokulingana kwezehlulelo zikahulumeni. Ngokufanayo, Gideon v. Wainright[ [1963]) siqinisekisa ilungelo lokunikeza iseluleko ngabamangalelwa ezinkantolo zobugebengu, siqinisekisa ukuthi umcebo awunqumi ukwahlulela ngokulunga. Lezi zimo zibonisa indlela uBill wamaLungelo ahlala ngayo eyithuluzi eliphilayo lokuthuthukisa ukulingana.

Ukulingana Ngaphansi KoMthetho

Ukulingana kuyisisekelo sentando yeningi yaseMelika. Isigaba esilinganayo sesivikelo soMthetho-sisekelo, esitholakala eSichibiyelweni seshumi nane, sifeza indima ebalulekile ekuqinisekiseni ukuthi bonke abantu baphathwa ngokufanelekile ngaphansi komthetho. Lokhu kunqabela ukuphika noma yimuphi umuntu isivikelo esilinganayo semithetho.

I-Evincimence Protection ibuye yabekwa ngemva kweMpi yangaphakathi ngo-1868, iSichibiyelo seshumi nane senzelwe ukuqinisekisa amalungelo abantu base-Afrika abasanda kukhululeka. Ukuvikelwa Kwayo u-Ecumial Protection Claus kuye kwaba yimoto eyinhloko yemithetho nemikhuba ebekela inselele ubandlululo. I-Active ayidingi ukuphathwa okufanayo kuwo wonke umuntu, kodwa yenqabela isenzo sikahulumeni esihlasela iqembu ngezizathu ezizenzekelayo noma ezizwakalayo. Izinkantolo ziye zasungula iziteshi zokuhlola ngo--"lifece", phakathi, futhi nesisekelo esinengqondo, zihlola ukuthi umthetho uwephula isivikelo esifanayo yini.

Amacala Ayinhloko Enkantolo

Amacala amaningana avelele eNkantolo Ephakeme aye achaza isigamu sesivikelo esifanayo, esithuthukisa ukuqonda kwethu ubulungisa nokulingana:

  • Brown v. Board of Education (1954): [[FLT]] imemezela ukwahlukaniswa ngokohlanga ezikoleni zomphakathi ngaphandle komthetho. INkantolo yavumelana ngokuthi “ukuhlukana kodwa ilingani” akulingani ngokwemvelo, ibhuntshisa Phoselve v. Ferguson [1896])]. Lesinqumo sasusa uhlelo olungokomthetho lukaJim Crow futhi saba yi-partum.
  • Roe v. Wade (1973): Waqinisekisa ilungelo lowesifazane lokukhetha mayelana nempilo yakhe yokuzala, ebeka ilungelo eMhlelweni ka-Claus weSichibiyelo seshumi nane. Nakuba icala labekwa ngecala ku- Dobs v. Jackson’s Health Organization [2022], ifa lakhe lihlala lisemqoka ekuxabaneni ngesilinganiso somzimba nesobulili.
  • Obergefell v. Hodges (2015): Umshado osemthethweni ongowobulili ezweni lonke, uqinisa isimiso sokulingana. INkantolo yasekela ukuthi ilungelo lokushada liyilungelo eliyisisekelo eliqinisekisiwe emibhangqwaneni efana neyobulili ngaphansi kwakho kokubili i-Sect Programme ne-Encial Provice Clauses.

Lezi zimo zibonisa indlela i-Unicial Protection Claus eguquka ngayo ukuze ikhulume ngezindlela ezintsha zobandlululo. Ngokwesibonelo, i-Lovang v. Virginia (1967) yaqeda ukuvinjelwa komshado wezinhlanga, kanye Shelby County v. Haker [2013]) ibeke i-Voting Rights Act, iveza izimpikiswano eziqhubekayo ngobulungisa bezinhlanga. Incazelo yeNkantolo yokulingana ayifinyeleli; ibonisa ukushintsha izindinganiso zohlobo nokuqonda.

Uvivinyo Oluyisisekelo Sokubeka Icala Nangemva Kwalo

Ngaphansi kokubukeza okunengqondo, umthetho ucatshangelwa njengosebenza kahle uma uhlobene nesithakazelo esingokomthetho sikahulumeni. Lomgoqo ophansi usebenza ezimisweni eziningi zezomnotho nezezenhlalo. Nokho, ngokwezigaba ezisekelwe ngokohlanga, umsuka wesizwe, noma amalungelo ayisisekelo, izinkantolo zisebenzisa indinganiso eqinile, eqinile kakhulu. Ngaphansi kwalokhu kuhlola, umthetho kumelwe uhlolwe kancane ukuze ufinyelele isithakazelo sikahulumeni esigunyazayo. Izindawo zithola ukuhlolwa okuphakathi, zifuna umthetho ukuba ukhonze isithakazelo esibalulekile sikahulumeni futhi uhlolwe kakhulu.

Lendlela elandelelanayo iqinisekisa ukuthi amaqembu asengozini kakhulu athola isivikelo esikhulu. Ngokwesibonelo, ukuvumela izimiso zemfundo ephakeme kuye kwahlolwa ngokuhlolisisa okuqinile. Graiteper v. Bollinger [[2003]], iNkantolo yasekela iYunivesithi yaseMichigan Law School ukuvuma komjaho ngolwazi, ukuthola ukuthi izinhlobonhlobo zeze zakha isithakazelo esiqinile. Nokho, iziqhano ze-fair Fair Adgictsssss.[[FLT][2003] [20]), iNkanto ehla ngezenzo zohlanga ezisekelwe ekuthandekeni kohlanga eHarvard naseYunivesithi yase-Carolina, eziphethe ukuthi zaphula i-Cemaclaus.

Ubulungisa Nesimiso Sobulungisa Sobugebengu

Izinqumo ezinjenge - Sixte ne - 8 zinikeza isivikelo esibalulekile kubantu abamangalelwa ngobugebengu, ziqinisekisa ukuphathwa ngokufanele nangenqubo efanele.

Lezi sivikelo azizona nje iziphakamiso; zihlanganisa isimiso sokuthi iSichibiyelo seSithandathu kumelwe siphathe wonke umuntu ngesithunzi nangokungakhethi. ISichibiyelo seSithandathu siqinisekisa ilungelo lokuqulwa kwecala elisheshayo nelinomphakathi, ijaji elingakhethi, ilungelo lokutshelwa ngamacala, ilungelo lokubhekana nofakazi, nelungelo lokunikezwa iseluleko. Isivikelo seSichibiyelo seSiphendu sesihlanu esimelene nezingozi ezimbili sivimbela uhulumeni ukuba aphikise ngokuphindaphindiwe umuntu ngecala elifanayo, kuyilapho ilungelo lokumelana nomthetho womuntu siqu livikela i-Implase.

Amalungelo Abamangalelwa

Amalungelo ommangalelwa agxeka ukulondoloza ubulungisa. Ingxenye eziyinhloko zihlanganisa:

  • Ekulungeni ekuqulweni kwecala okusheshayo: iqinisekisa ukuthi abantu abagcinwanga kuze kube phakade ngaphandle kokulingwa. Barker v. Wingo (1972]] uhlola izilinganiso ezine: ubude besikhathi, isizathu sokubambezela, ukugomela kommangalelwa, nobandlululo kummangalelwa.
  • Ilunga elulekweni: iqinisekisa ukuthi abamangalelwa bayakwazi ukumela umthetho. Gideon v. Wainwright[ (63]) yandisa lelilungelo ukuhlanganisa amaphutha, kanye [[FLT]]] [FLT]] Argerser v. Hamlin [7]] [7]] wandisa noma isiphi isijeziso esingasehlela ukuboshelwa. Usizo lweseluleko olunempumelelo ludingeka futhi ngaphansi .[2]
  • Ukuvikelwa ekujezisweni konya:[ Isichibiyeli sesishiyagalombili sivimbela ukuphathwa kobuntu. INkantolo Ephakeme ikholelwa ukuthi isijeziso sokufa asivumelani nemithetho yezingane (]Roper v. I-Simmons, 2005]) kanye nabantu abakhubazekile ebuchosheni ([] ama-atkinv. Virginia, 2002]). Ibheyili engafanele iyavinjwa.

Ngaphezu kwalokho, umthetho weSichibiyelo sesine wokuhlukanisa, njengoba ucwengisiwe emagc v.Ohio, uvimbela ukuziphatha okubi kwamaphoyisa ngokufaka ubufakazi obungekho emthethweni. I-Gust Procession Clause yeSichibiyelo se-145th ifuna ukuba izinqubo zobugebengu zibe ezilungile ngokwezingalo. Ngokwesibonelo, [ku- Brady v. Maryland[ [1963], iNkanto ekholelwa ukuthi abashushicileli kumelwe bave ubufakazi bokuvikela isivikelo. Lokhu kuqinisekisa ukuthi isimiso sobulungisa sisebenza ngokuthembeka futhi akukho muntu onecala.

Ukuthungatha Inqwaba Nokumangalela Inguquko

Naphezu kwalezi zindawo ezivikelwe umthetho-sisekelo, i-United States inezinga eliphakeme kakhulu lokuboshwa phakathi kwamazwe athuthukile. Abantu abangaphezu kwezigidi ezingu-1,9 baboshelwe, benemiphumela engenakulinganiswa emiphakathini yabamnyama nabaseSpain. IMpi Yezidakamizwa, imisho edilivani ebotshelelweyo, nemithetho emithathu ye-athonsid transfers iye yanezela ekuboshweni kwabantu abaningi. ISichibiyelo seSigwebo se-Heighth sonya nesijeziso esingavamile siye sacelwa ukuba kubekelwe inselele imigwebo ende, ikakhulukazi ngenxa yezenzo zobugebengu obungaphangakali.

Miller v. Alabama (2020), iNkantolo yanquma ukuthi izigwebo zokuphila eziphoqelelwe ngaphandle kokukhishwa kwesigwebo sentsha ziphazamisa iSichibiyelo seNguquko seNyakatho engu-8. United States v. Incwadi (2005], iNkantolo yenza iziqondiso zokugweba iziqondiso kunezingadingekile, kodwa iyaqhubeka. Abameli babiza inguquko, kuhlanganise nokususwa kwemali, okulahla ubumpofu, nokwanda kwezinhlelo zokulungisa. Umthetho-mgaqo-siseko unikeza uhlelo lwemithetho, kodwa oluqhubekayo ludingeka ukuqaphela ubulungisa bonke.

Isenzo Esiqinisayo Nokulingana

Izimiso eziqinile ezithatha isinyathelo ziye zavela njengendlela yokuxazulula ukungalungi komlando nokukhuthaza ukulingana. Lezi zimiso zihlose ukuhlobisa umkhakha wemidlalo yemfundo nomsebenzi ngokucabangela uhlanga, ubulili, nezinye izici eziphethe izinqubo zokwenza izinqumo.

Umqondo wokuvuma waqala wavelela kuMongameli John F. Kennedy ka-19925 ka-1961, owafuna ukuba abakhi bakahulumeni “bathathe isinyathelo sokuvuma” ukuze baqiniseke ukuthi abaphikisi. Kamuva, uMongameli Lyndon B. UMthetho kaJohnson Wezikhundla wandisa lezi zimfuneko futhi wasungula iHhovisi le-Federal Contracct Compliance. Izinhlelo zezemfundo ephakeme ze-Afritized zaba indawo yokuhlobana ngezimpikiswano ngokubaluleka kwesilinganiso.

Izimpikiswano Ezizungeze Isinyathelo Esiwumqansa

Nakuba uvuma ufuna ukuthuthukisa ukulingana, futhi kuye kwavusa izimpikiswano ngobulungisa nokulunga. Amaphuzu ayinhloko engxoxo ahlanganisa:

  • UbuCristic: Abanye baphikisa ngokuthi ukuvuma kungaholela ekuguquleni ubandlululo, ukususa izikhalazo ezingezona ezimngeni ezifaneleke kakhulu. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi ukuvuma okungaqondakali kohlanga kuphula iSivikelo sika-Claus ongenakubonwa futhi kufanele kuthathelwe indawo ngokukhetha kwesigaba noma kwezomnotho. [Ku-UMnumkhandi we-computer of California v. Bakke [18]), iNkantolo yashaya isilinganiso sesilinganiso sesimiso sika-Ecustom kodwa ivunyelwe ukuba sibe simonye phakathi kwabaningi.
  • I-Support: abasekeli bakholelwa ukuthi kudingekile ukulwa nokungalingani kwezimiso. Bakhomba efa lokwahlukaniswa kohlanga nokwehluka okuqhubekayo ekufinyeleleni imfundo nasemceboni. Ukucwaninga kubonisa ukuthi indawo ehlukile yokufunda izuzisa bonke abafundi. `Isinqumo esivumelanayo njengesithakazelo esishukumisayo, nakuba kwaphawulwa ukuthi izinhlelo zezinhlanga ezingaziwa kufanele zibe zesikhashana futhi zihlolwe ukubukezwa ngezikhathi ezithile.

IZinqumo ze- ze-Fair Adgings v. Harvard (2023) zaqeda ngokuphumelelayo ukuvuma okungaqapheliyo kwezinhlanga emakholijini amaningi nasemayunivesithi. INkantolo yakholelwa ukuthi i-Harvard ne-UNC zazingenazo izinhloso ezingenakulungiseka futhi zisebenzise uhlanga ngendlela ephambene. Lesinqumo siye saphoqelela izinhlangano ukuba zihlole kabusha amasu azo ahlukene, ngokushintsha kakhulu ukuma kwezentengiselwano yezomnotho, ukuma kwemfundo yokuqala yesikole, nokuhlukahlukahluka kwezindawo zemvelo njengezindlela ezingakhoshamela ezinye izindlela. Isikhathi esizayo sokuvuma kungahlala kunezicingo ezilandisayo ze-mali, kodwa ngaphandle kokukhetha okucacile.

Isenzo Esisekelwe Esiqinile

Ukuvuma okusekelwe kumthetho futhi kunendima ekuthuthukiseni ukulingana. Isihloko IX seSichibiyelo semfundo sango 1972 sivimbela ukucwaswa kwezocansi ezimisweni zemfundo ezixhaswa nguhulumeni. Lo mthetho uye wasiza ekwandiseni amathuba abesifazane abadlalayo, ama-STEM, nomholi wezemfundo. Ngokufanayo, i-Encic Pay Act ne-Sihloko se-Organity VII soMthetho we-Oct ihlose ukuqeda igebelele lemali eholweni lezenzweni lezenzweni lezemfundo. Nokho, izinselele zisalokhu zikhona, njengoba abesifazane besathola amasenti angu-8 (R1,2) ngemali ngayinye eholigi, futhi ubandlululo luyaqhubeka ekuhlweni nasekukhushulweni kwemisebenzi.

Indima Yomhumushi Ekushintsheni Incazelo Yomthetho - sisekelo

Incazelo yeNkantolo Ephakeme yamalungelo omthetho-sisekelo isekelwe ekuziphendukeleni kwemvelo kokulingana nobulungisa. Ngokuhlola kokwahlulela, iNkantolo inesiphetho sokugcina sokuthi umthetho noma isenzo sokuphatha sihambisana noMthetho-sisekelo. La mandla amiswa Marbury v. Madison [1803] futhi aye asetshenziselwa ukuqeda izinqubo zokulahla ubandlululo kuwo wonke umlando.

INkantolo ayigonyiwe ekucindezeleni kwezombangazwe nangokwezenhlalo. Izinqumo ze-Landmark ngokuvamile zibonisa izindinganiso ezikhona esikhathini sabo, kodwa futhi zimisa nezimiso ezintsha. Ngokwesibonelo, Brown v. Board yalahla imfundiso “ehlukeneyo kodwa elinganayo” eyayiphikele iminyaka engaphezu kwengu-50. [i] zenza [i-Oberge] yaqaphela ilungelo eliyisisekelo elalingekho embhalweni wokuqala womthetho-sisekelo. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi izinqumo ezinjalo zimelela izenzo zokwahlulela, kuyilapho abasekeli bezibona zibalulekile eMthethweni wezomthetho ophilayo ozivumelanisa izimo ezishintshayo.

Ukwahlulela kuye kwathathwa njengeqembu elikhulu, nababusi abafuna ukumisa abahluleli abavumelana nemibono yabo. Inqubo yokuqinisekisa ngokuvamile ihilela ukucubungula kakhulu imibono ka-minee ngokulinganayo nangobulungisa. Ngokwesibonelo, uMahluleli uThur Good Marshall, ummeli wamalungelo omphakathi owaphikisa Brown, wathola mathuphana ngokungabi nabulungisa kobuhlanga ebhentshini. Muva nje, ukumiswa kweJaji Ketan Brown Brown, owesifazane wokuqala omnyama eNkantolo, uveza intuthuko.

Izinselele Zamanje Nendlela Eqhubekayo

Nakuba uMthetho - sisekelo unikeza isisekelo esiqinile sokulingana nobulungisa, izinselele zamanje ziyaqhubeka. Ukungalingani kwezomnotho, ubandlululo lwesimiso, imingcele yamalungelo okuvota, nezimpikiswano zokuguqula amaphoyisa kuvivinya imingcele yesivikelo somthetho - sisekelo.

I-Voting Rights Act ka-1965, ebekwe ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo sesihlanu, iye yalulama ngesinqumo se-Shelby County, esaqeda isinqumo senqubo yokuzihlela kwangaphambili. Ekuphenduleni, imibuso eminingana iye yashaya imithetho efuna ama-ID ovota, ilinganisela ukuvota kwasekuqaleni, futhi ikhipha i-vota libhulo. I-Ligig iyaqhubeka ngaphansi kweSivikelo esiKhuluzayo sika Clauslee noMthetho we-Voting Rights Act. Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme esifuna ukuvota ku-[FLT:] Brnoch v. Democratic National Committeement[FLD [FLT:][2] provich] protation yenza kwaba nzima ukubekela imingcele yokuvota ngaphansi kwesigaba sesi-2 se-Act, ukuhlanganisa isidingo esisha esiphezulu se-John.

Imithetho yomthetho nenguquko yomthetho iyaqhubeka ibalulekile. Icala eliphambili lobudlova bamaphoyisa, njengokubulawa kukaGeorge Floyd, liye labangela ukubhikisha kwesizwe futhi lafuna ukulandisa. Isivikelo seSichibiyelo sesine sokuvikela ukuphenywa okungacabangeli nokuquleka, kanye nenqubo efanelekile yeSichibiyelo se 144th Isiphepheli seMitheliso, sibalulekile kule mpikiswano. Ukuvikelwa okufanelekile, okuvikela izikhulu ekubekeni icala lomphakathi, kuye kwagxekwa ngokubeka indiva. Amanye amazwe aye athatha izinguquko, futhi i-Congressresstion iye yabheka i-George Flod Justicement in Policicial Act, kodwa izinselele zomthetho-mthetho-siseko ziyaqhubeka.

Ukulingana kwe-Gender kubhekene nemingcele emisha. ISichibiyelo samaLungelo esilinganayo (ERA), esiqinisekisa ngokucacile ukulingana kwamalungelo ngaphansi komthetho, sadluliselwa yiSishaya-mthetho ngo-1971 kodwa sahluleka ukuhlanganisa. Ngo-2020, iVirginia yaba yizwe lama-38 lokusebenzisa i-raifign, kodwa izimpikiswano ezingokomthetho ziyaqhubeka ngomthetho wesikhathi kanye nokufaneleka kwemigqa yamuva. INkantolo Ephakeme ayizange ibhekisele ngokuqondile ukuthi i-ERA inganezelwa yini eMthethweni. Okwamanje, izindaba ezihilela amalungelo etransgender, bousbeck. County [FLT] [FLD: 1] [20] [20] i-premignicerder) futhi iveza i-stativession e-ssion ession.[Fogn Com][2]

Isiphetho: Uhambo Oluqhubekayo Lokulingana Nobulungisa

UMthetho - sisekelo uyaqhubeka uyincwadi ephilayo eyaqhubeka iguquka. Ukuqonda kwethu ukulingana nobulungisa kuthonywa izincazelo eziqhubekayo zamalungelo omthetho - sisekelo. Njengoba othisha nabafundi behlanganyela kulemiqondo, banengxenye engxoxweni eqhubekayo ehlobene namalungelo omphakathi kanye nenkululeko eMelika.

IBill of Rights, iSichibiyelo seshumi nane, nezinguquko ezilandelayo zinikeza isisekelo esingokomthetho, kodwa ukuphishekela ukulingana kudinga ukuqapha njalo. Izinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme, ukuthatha imithetho, nezinhlangano zotshani konke kunendima ekulolongeni incazelo yobulungisa. Ukuhlolwa kwaseMelika kuwumsebenzi ongakapheli, futhi isizukulwane ngasinye kumelwe silwisane nobunzima phakathi kwenkululeko nokulingana, phakathi kwesiko nentuthuko.

Kulabo abafisa ukujulisa ukuqonda kwabo, imithombo eyinhloko enjengewebhusayithi i-Constitution Anuted inikeza ukwaziswa okuningiliziwe kwemisho ngayinye. Izihloko zichaza kabanzi ngemithetho yemithetho. Izinhlangano ezifana ne ALLU][[FLT:] [[FLT]] kanye ne [FLT] [FLT] [FLT]] [-S] SP] Inkonsone yeNkathi [[[FLT]] [FLT] [FLT]] [FLT] [FLT] [FLT] [FLT]] [FLT]] [FLT]] [FLT]]

Ekugcineni, uMthetho-sisekelo awusona isiqinisekiso sokuziqeda. Uhlelo oluxhomeke ekubophekeni kwezakhamuzi, abamisi-mthetho, nakwabahluleli ukuba basekele izimiso zawo. Ukulingana nobulungisa akuwona amaphuzu azimele kodwa izinhloso ezinamandla ezifuna isenzo. Ngokufunda indlela amalungelo omthetho-sisekelo alolonga ngayo ukuqonda kwethu, sizihlomisela ukuba sihlanganyele kule nqubo ebalulekile yentando yeningi.