Imvelaphi Engokomlando Yezinhlokwana Nokulinganisela

Umqondo wokuhlola nokulinganisela awusukanga kumthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. kuphela; izimpande zawo zihlehlela emuva eGreece naseRoma yasendulo. Isazi - mlando esingumGreki uPolybius sachaza iRiphabliki yeRoma njengenomthetho oxubene owenziwe ngemithetho yenkosi, yezikhulu, nentando yeningi, isici ngasinye esihlola ezinye. Lomqondo waqanjwa yizazi zokukhanyiselwa njengoMontesquieu, umsebenzi wakhe [[FLT:] [1748] [] (1748]) waphikisa ukuthi ukuhlukanisa isikhulu, i-crounignogration, futhi amandla okwahlulela ayebalulekile ukuze avimbele ubushiqela nokuvikela inkululeko. Isimiso somthetho somthetho sazinye samelana namandla engxenyeni ngayinye yezimiso zomlando, futhi samelana nesimiso segatsha ngalinye.

Amagatsha Amathathu Kahulumeni: Amandla Nemithwalo Yemfanelo

UMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. umisa amagatsha amathathu kahulumeni alinganayo, ngalinye elinendima eyinhloko kanye neqoqo lamagunya ayingqayizivele. Ukuqonda lezindima kubalulekile ekuqondeni ukuthi amasheke nezilinganiso zisebenza kanjani.

Igatsha Elingokomthetho (Isifunda - sisekelo)

ISiphakamiso I sawo wonke amagunya omthetho eSishayamthetho eSishaya - mthetho, esinamakamelo amabili: iNdlu yabameleli neSigele. Indlu, namalungu ayo ayekhethwa njalo eminyakeni emibili, iklanyelwe ukumelela abantu ngokuqondile, kuyilapho iSigele, esinamaqoqo aneminyaka eyisithupha, simelela izifundazwe. Umsebenzi oyinhloko woMkhandlu ukwenza imithetho, kodwa futhi uphethe “igunya lesikhwama semali” — igunya lokukhokha intela, ukuboleka, nokuchitha imali. Ngaphezu kwalokho, iSigele seSishaya-Ndlu - mthetho siqinisekisa ukumiswa kwamongameli (njengamalungu eKhabhinethi, amajajisi, amajaji ombuso, namajaji aphakeme) futhi ufaka izivumelwano ngevoti amabili. Umhlangano ungahlola futhi uhulumeni wegatsha ngokulalela nangezimpompo.

Igatsha Eliphethe (Ububonisi)

ISiphakamiso II simisa igatsha eliphethe, eliholwa nguMongameli wase-United States. UMongameli unomthwalo wemfanelo wokumisa imithetho edluliswa yiSishaya-mthetho, ukuyala amabutho ahlomile, ukuqhuba inqubo yakwamanye amazwe, nokumisa izikhulu zikahulumeni. Igatsha eliphethe lihlanganisa iminyango eminingi nezinhlangano eziqondisa izinhlelo zikahulumeni. UMongameli futhi unamandla okukhipha iziyalezo zezikhulu, ezinamandla okulawula, nokuthethelela izono zomthetho. Nakuba la mandla ebanzi, alinganiselwe amanye amagatsha ngezindlela ezihlukahlukene.

Igatsha Lokwahlulela (Izinkantolo)

ISiphakamiso III sikha igatsha lokwahlulela, eliholwa yiNkantolo Ephakeme futhi kuhlanganise nezinkantolo eziphansi zikahulumeni ezamiswa yiSishaya-mthetho. Umsebenzi wejaji uwukuchaza umthetho futhi unqume ukuthi imithetho noma izenzo zokuphatha ziyawuphula yini umthetho. Ithuluzi elinamandla kakhulu legatsha lokwahlulela liyicala [ lokuhlola — igunya lokushaya imithetho nemithetho yezikhulu ezingagunya elingekho emthethweni wezomthetho. Leligunya alibhalwanga ngokucacile eMthethweni womthetho-sisekelo kodwa lamiswa enkantolo yezezwe [[FLT:]] [[FLT:]] [FLT] v[FLT]] [FLT]] [FLD] [3:3].. Abahluleli basebenza ukumiswa kokuphila konke, okuyibophaka ingcisho ezombangazwe kodwa futhi kumelwe futhi baqinisekise ngenqubo yezombangazwe.

Isihluthulelo Siyahlola Futhi Silinganisele

Abakhi baklama uchungechunge lwezinqubo ezithile ezivumela igatsha ngalinye ukuba lilinganisele izenzo zamanye. Lokhu kuhlola kusebenza ngokuqonde (phakathi kwamagatsha amathathu kahulumeni) kanye nokumile (phakathi kukahulumeni kahulumeni kazwelonke nezwe). Ngezansi kunezinhlolo eziphawuleka kakhulu.

Umthetho Uhlola Isikhulu

  • -O ukushayeka i-veto kamongameli: Uma uMongameli ekhipha umthetho, uMkhandlu ungawudlulisa lowo msindo ngenani eliphindwe kabili-ntathu kokubili endlu naseSigeqeni, uphoqelela umthetho ukuba usebenze.
  • Ukuhlanganisa nokususa: Indlu inamandla okuphela kwezikhulu zikahulumeni, kuhlanganise noMongameli, ngenxa “yomcabango, ukufumbathisa, noma obunye ubugebengu obukhulu kanye namaphutha.” Khona - ke iSigele siqunga icala futhi singasusa isikhulu ngevoti eliphindwe ka-3.
  • Imvume nemvume: ISigele kumelwe siqinisekise ukumiswa okuningi komongameli, kuhlanganise nonobhala bamaKhabhinethi, amajaji kahulumeni, namanxusa. Lokhu kunikeza igatsha lemithetho isho ngokuqondile ukuthi ubani okhipha imithetho.
  • Ukuhlanganisa: Noma isiphi isivumelwano esixoxwa uMongameli kumelwe sivunyelwe ngama-3-2 eSigele ngaphambi kokuba sisebenze.
  • amandla esikhwama semali:[ uKhongolose ulawula yonke izindleko zikahulumeni; uMongameli akakwazi ukusebenzisa imali engazange isetshenziswe i-Congress. Leli ithuluzi elinamandla lokulinganisela izinhlelo zokuqondisa.
  • Ukwengamela nokwengamela: amakomiti e-Congress angafaka amabhukwana e-poena nobufakazi obuvela egatsheni eliphethe, ehlola ukuziphatha okubi noma ukungaphumeleli.

Isikhulu Esiphethe Sihlola Icala

  • Amandla: UMongameli angalahla noma isiphi isikwele esidluliswa yiSishaya-mthetho, avimbele ukuba sibe umthetho ngaphandle kokuba iveto ayisebenzi. Lokhu kunikeza umphathi indima eqondile enqubweni yokushaya umthetho.
  • ivoti kaMongameli ephula uthayi kuSigele: UMongameli ongumsekeli ukhonza njengoMongameli weSigele futhi angavota ukuze aphule uthayi, athonye ngokuphumelelayo umthetho.
  • Isimo sekheli le-Union: UMongameli angamisa umthetho futhi amise amacebo esizwe, alolonge impikiswano ye-conodia.
  • Ukuqeda iziqephu ezikhethekile zoMkhandlu: Nakuba kungathukela kusetshenziswa namuhla, uMongameli angahlanganisa iSishaya-mthetho ngaphandle kwesimiso sakhe sasikhathi sonke lapho kuphakama izindaba eziphuthumayo.

Ukwahlulela Kuhlola Amanye Amagatsha

  • Ukubukeza okungokwesivumelwano: Izinkantolo zingashaya imithetho edluliswa uMkhandlu nezenzo ezithathwa uMongameli uma ephula umthetho-sisekelo. Lokhu kuyi-erch yejaji enamandla kakhulu.
  • Imithetho yokuhlela: Ijaji linquma incazelo yemithetho, engaguqula kakhulu umphumela womthetho ngaphezu kwalokho okwakuhloswe uMkhandlu ekuqaleni.
  • Imibono yeziyalo zezikhulu:[ izinkantolo zeFederal zingaqeda iziyalezo zezikhulu ezidlula igunya lomongameli noma ukungqubuzana nomthetho wamanje.
  • Ukuvikelwa kwamalungelo abantu ngabanye:[ Izinkantolo zingamisa izenzo zezikhulu noma zomthetho eziphula amalungelo omthetho-sisekelo, njengenkululeko yokukhuluma, inqubo efanele, noma isivikelo esilinganayo.

Amasheke Esibhakabhakeni

Ijaji alivinjelwe; namanye amagatsha anamandla okunqanda izinkantolo,

  • Isehlo se-ligislative: Isikhongozelo singaguqula ukubusa kwezinkantolo zikahulumeni (nemingcele ethile yomthetho-sisekelo), sishintshe ubukhulu beNkantolo Ephakeme, futhi sisikisele izinguquko zomthetho-mthetho ukuze sihlulele izinqumo. ISigeqe siqinisekisa futhi ama-minee.
  • Ukuhlola okusebenzayo: uMongameli umisa bonke abahluleli bamazwe (othobela ukuqinisekiswa kweSigele) futhi angathethelela abantu ababoshelwe emacalani kahulumeni, aphumele phambili ekugwebeni.

Izibonelo Zezwe Langempela Zamasheke Nokulinganisela Okusebenzayo

Lezibonelo zibonisa indlela igatsha ngalinye, ngezikhathi ezinzima, eliye lacindezela ngayo amandla abanye.

Marbury v. Madison (103) — Ukumisa i-Recouncial Review

Ezinsukwini eziwohlokayo zobumongameli bukaJohn Adams, wamisa amajaji amaningana angokobuFederalst, kodwa amanye amanxusa awazange adluliswe. Lapho uThomas Jefferson ethatha isikhundla, unobhala wakhe woMbuso, uJames Madison, enqaba ukuwanikeza. William Marbury waququlula ngenxa yenkambiso yakhe. UMahluleli omkhulu uJohn Marshall wamemezela ukuthi umthetho onikeza iNkantolo amandla okukhipha imvume yokuhlola i-Writ ayigunyaziwe. Ngokwenza kanjalo, iNkantolo yamisa isimiso sokwahlulela — amandla okushaya imithetho ephikisana noMthetho - sisekelo. Leli cala liseyigunya leNkathi yeNkathi yeNkantolo.

IWatergate Scandal (1972 - 1974) — Ingqungquthela Nokwahlulela Kuhlola Isikhulu

Ukugqekeza kwendlunkulu ye-Democratic Committee National Committee kwaqala izenzakalo ezabonisa amandla agcwele emishini nama-scheck. ISigele sikhetha ikomiti, eholwa uSam Ervin, saphatha ukuzwakala okucutshungulisiwe okwambula ukusetshenziswa kabi kwamandla kaMongameli Richard Nixon. Okwamanje, umshushisi okhethekile u Archibald Cox (omiswe igatsha eliphethe kodwa kamuva wadubula “kuSuku Lobusuku iMasacre”) kanye noLeon Jahorkiski owalandela uqobo waveza ukusetshenziswa kabi kwemisebe emhlophe. Inkantolo Ephakeme, [[Foct:] eUnited States v[Foct:1], ngaphandle kwesidingo sobufakazi obunamandla.

Ukuhlolwa KukaBill Clinton (1998 - 1999) — I - Legislative Cex - Sex Exhunyiwe YiSigele

Umongameli uBill Clinton waphambaniswa yiNdlu yabameleli emacaleni okumangalela nokuvimbela ubulungisa okuhlobene nomthetho ohlangene nomthetho kaMonica Lewinsky. Nokho, iSigele — esisebenza njengenkantolo yokuqulwa kwecala — sahluleka ukuqoqa inani eliyisithathu elidingwa ukuba liboshwe futhi lisuswe. Lokhu kubonisa ukuthi kokubili amandla egatsha lemithetho yokuphula umthetho awenza ahluleke kanye nendima yeSigebengu njengesesheshi kulo kanye lelo gunya. Imfuneko yesithathu iqinisekisa ukuthi ukususwa kudinga i-bipartarian Convictive, ivimbela ukuving engekho kwemithetho elandela.

I - Afford Care Act Effect Izinselele (202, 2015) — I - Judicial Review of Magnal Legistration

I-Affordble Care Act (ACA), umthetho ophawula imingcele omiswe yiDemocratic Congress futhi wasayinwa nguMongameli Barack Obama ngo-2010, wabhekana nezinselele ezingokomthetho ezisheshayo. Abaphikisi baphikisa ngokuthi igunya lomuntu ngamunye — elifuna ukuba amaMelika athenge umshuwalense wezempilo — lidlule amandla eMkhandlu ngaphansi kweChwebezo lika Celasko. [[FL:0]] I-National Federation of Independent COS v. [Sebelius] [[FLT] [20], iNkakhulu leNkantolo lisekela igunya lokusebenzisa intela yeNkathi yeNkathi yeNka yeNka yeNkantolo] kodwa labulala ilungiselelo lokuvimbela zonke izimali ezizweni ezisekwenqabelayo. Ngokukathiwe, [i-10] ku-Explor.[FF]

Ukuqondisa Ukuhlola Umthetho: Umbuso We - Veto

Muva nje, uMongameli uDonald Trump vhato aphendulisa iNational Defense Leaving Act ngo-2020, efuna izinhlelo ezisezisekelweni zempi ezibizwa ngokuthi abaholi nabalawuli abaholi bebutho. ISishaya-mthetho sehluleka ukuthatha izikweleti ezingaphezu kuka-600 phakathi nombuso wakhe.

Okwenza Ukulinganisela Kube Nendaba Yokubusa Kwentando Yeningi

Amasheke nama - alception awayona nje imikhakha engokwemvelo; abalulekile ekuqhubekeni kwentando yeningi engokomthetho - sisekelo.

Ukuvimbela Ukugxilisa Amandla

Amandla avame ukonakalisa, futhi amandla aphelele onakalise ngokuphelele. Ngokuhlukanisa igunya phakathi kwamagatsha amathathu, ngalinye elinezikhawu zalo ezihlukile zomthetho nohlelo lwawo, isimiso senza kube nzima nganoma yiliphi iqembu ukuba lithathe ukulawula. Ngisho noma omunye unqoba ubumongameli kanye nazo zombili izindlu zobumbano, i-jadicary (ngokumiswa kokuphila) futhi izifunda zingavimbela abakhohlisi.

Ukukhuthaza Inkululeko Nokuhlehla

Ngenxa yokuthi alikho igatsha elingathatha isinyathelo ngokuphelele, isimiso siphoqelela ukuba kuxoxwe ngezindlela ezihlukene. Umthetho kumelwe uphume eqenjini elinamakomiti aqulweyo, amavoti aphansi, amakomiti engqungquthela, ukuvunyelwa komongameli (noma u-veto), kanye nokuhlola okungase kwenzeke. Lokhu kunciphisa inqubo yomthetho, kodwa futhi kuholela ekucabangeleni imithetho esekelwa kakhulu. Abahleli benza ukuba kube nzima ngamabomu ukushaya imithetho ukuze kuphela labo abavumelanayo bagcine.

Ukuvikela Amalungelo Nokufana Kwabantu

Iningi lingawanyathela ngokungalawuli amalungelo amadlanzana — kungakhathaliseki ukuthi angowezombangazwe, engokohlanga, engokwenkolo, noma amasiko. Ijaji, njengegatsha elizimele, lingashaya imithetho ephula umthetho weSigqi Samalungelo Abantu noma iSikhungo soMthetho-sisekelo esiKhulekele u-Celales. Ngokwesibonelo, isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme [eFLT:0] Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo [1954]) yamemezela ukuhlukaniswa kwezinhlanga ezikoleni ezingosini ezingokombamthetho, isekela i-mthetho wemithetho yemithetho yemithetho ye-Proviation and igatsha lezikhulu ezibeke ibekezelela noma i-galelo. Lokhu kuhlanganisa ukuvikela kwenkululeko yokukhuluma, inqubo eyimfihlo, nenye inqubo eyisisekelo.

Ukulandisa Ngokunakekela

Isimiso sokuhlola nokulinganisela siveza amaphuzu amaningi okulandisa. Umphathi kumele aphendule kuKhongolo-kahulumeni (ngokuzwa, ukuphenya, nokuphenya), ezinkantolo (ngokuhlola kokwahlulela), futhi ekugcineni kubavoti. Ngokufanayo, uMkhandlu ulandisa ezinkantolo (uma imithetho iwiswa) futhi kuvoti. Lokhu kulandisa kunciphisa ingozi yezenzo zikahulumeni eziwumthetho noma eziyimfihlo.

Izinselele Esimisweni Samakebhe Nokulinganisela

Kuzo zonke izici ezinamandla, isimiso sokuhlola nokulinganisela saseMelika sibhekene nezinselele ezingathi sína ekhulwini lama - 21.

Ukwehla Kwemibono Yezombangazwe Nokuvaleka Kwemizwa

Ukunyuka kwengxenye ephezulu kakhulu kuye kwenza kwaba nzima kakhulu ngamagatsha ukuba asebenzisane. Uma uMkhandlu uhlukaniswa phakathi ezinhlangothini zeqembu, ukuphumelela kwe-veto kuba cishe okungenakwenzeka, futhi umkhiqizo wemithetho uyehla. Kunokuba kusetshenziswe amasheke ukuze kubekwe omunye nomunye, abadlali abahlukene bangase basebenzise ukuvimbela inzuzo yezombangazwe. Umphumela kungaba ukuvinjelwa kukahulumeni, ukuvinjelwa, nokukhungathekiswa komphakathi okukhungatheki. Ezinye izazi ziphikisa ngokuthi manje inqubo ithambekele kakhulu ekufakeni i-odrock kunempumelelo.

Ukwanda Kwamandla Aphethe

Kulelikhulu leminyaka elidlule, igatsha eliphethe liye lakhula kakhulu — kokubili ngobukhulu nangezinga lokuthatha isinyathelo sobuphiyona. Abameli banikeza iziyalezo eziphethe izikhulu, izivumelwano zezikhulu, nezimemezelo zokungahambisani neSishaya-mthetho esimiswe ngemithetho. Ukusetshenziswa “kwemfundiso yesikhulu esiphethe” kuye kwakhuthazwa abanye ukuthethelela ukulawulwa kwemithetho yezikhulu. Nakuba kushiwo ukuthi iSishaya-Promension ingakuhlola lokhu ngokuncitshiswa kwezimali noma umthetho, ngokuvamile umphathi uthatha isinyathelo kuqala futhi alindele izinselele ezingokomthetho. Ngezinye izikhathi izinkantolo zilalela igunya lesikhulu, ikakhulukazi enkabeni yesizwe neyangaphandle.

Ukuntengantenga Kokunakekela Izishaya - mthetho

Ikhono le-Congress lokuhlola igatsha eliphethe liye lancishwa iqoqo lezici: ukunyuka kwelungelo eliphetheyo, ukwenqaba kwezikhulu zokuqondisa ukufakazela, nokubekwa kwenqubo yokungagunyazi. Ukusetshenziswa ophansana abangaphansi abashaywa indiva (futhi abaphoqelelwa izinkantolo ngendlela efike ngesikhathi) kwenza ukuhlola kwemithetho yezomthetho kube buthaka. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ukukhula kwesifunda sokulawula — izinhlangano ezihlanganisa umthetho, umphathi, nemisebenzi yokwahlulela — kwenza kube nzima ukwengamela ngenxa yokuthi izinhlangano ziyingxenye yamandla egatsheni elikhulu kodwa zisebenzisa i-iansigcolegisss ngokuhlela umthetho.

Indima Ye - yudicary Enkathini Ehlelwe Ngobuciko

Inqubo yokugunyazwa kwamajaji eNkantolo Ephakeme iye yancipha kakhulu, iholela eNkantolo egunyaza ukufaneleka kwayo idlalwa yizingxenye ezinkulu zomphakathi. Uma ijaji libhekwa njengomkhangisi wezezombangazwe kunokuba libhekwe njengomthaki wezobupolitiki, amandla ayo okuhlola amanye amagatsha anciphile. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ukusetshenziswa kweNkantolo okukhulayo kwemfundiso “yemibuzo esemthethweni” — ifuna ukuba iSishaya - mthetho sikhulume ngokucace lapho siphathisa izinhlangano — kungabhekwa njengesehluleli nje kuphela, sihlole umphathi kodwa futhi nenhloso yokuphatha.

Ukulinganisela Kwesikhathi Esizayo Nekusasa Lamasheke Nokulinganisela

Njengoba i-United States isondela enkathini eyi-1950 yokusungulwa kwayo, umbuzo wokuthi isimiso sokuhlola nokulinganisela kusasebenza ucindezela kakhulu kunanini ngaphambili. Abakhiqizi be-flamenti bezwe lanamuhla, imithombo yezindaba, noma izinga elikhulu likahulumeni. Kodwa izimiso eziyisisekelo zihlala zinengqondo: amandla kumelwe ahlukaniswe, futhi igatsha ngalinye kumelwe likwazi ukumelana nezinye.

Izenzakalo zamuva — njengezimpikiswano ngelungelo eliphezulu phakathi nabaphathi be-Trump neBiden, ukusetshenziswa kwe-banbuster eSigele, kanye nezinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme ngokukhishwa kwezisu, amalungelo ezibhamu, kanye nezimiso zendawo ezungezile — konke kubonisa umzabalazo oqhubekayo phakathi kwamagatsha. Isimiso asinqanyulwanga, kodwa sicindezelekile. Izakhamuzi nabafundisi kumelwe baqonde kokubili amandla aso kanye nobunzima baso ukuze bangene empikiswaneni enengqondo ngenguquko.

Ukuze ufunde ngokwengeziwe, cabangela ukuhlola uMthetho-sisekelo ohlangeneyo ovela eNational Constitution Center, ukuqoqwa kwezincwadi zokusungula ezibhalwe ngemininingwane ebanzi [[FLT]] ezisekelweni zeNational Archives[, noma ukuhlaziywa kwezazi iphepha lePrinceton elisezingenisweni nasemalinini [. Ngamunye unikeza ukuqonda okujulileyo ngendlela lesimiso somlando esisebenza ngayo nendlela esingavela ngayo.

Isiphetho

Amasethi akhethekile abalulekile kakhulu kunoma ubani ofuna ukuqonda ukuthi i-DNA yentando yeningi yaseMelika isebenza kanjani. Ngokuqinisekisa ukuthi alikho igatsha elingabusa, isimiso sivikela inkululeko, sikhuthaza ukuyekethisa, futhi sibambe amandla okulandisa. Ukuqonda izinqubo ezithile — kusukela ekuhlolweni kwemithetho kuya ekuhlolweni kwemithetho — kubalulekile kunoma ubani ofuna ukuqonda ukuthi uhulumeni wase-U.S. usebenza kanjani ngempela. Nakuba lesi simiso sibhekene nezinselele eziqotho ekubusweni kweqembu nesikhulu, ikhono laso lisezingenisweni laso futhi lixhomeke ezakhamuzini eziboshelwe ukusekela imithetho yaso. Impilo ende ye-Riphabliki ixhomeke ekubuyiseni lezozimiso nemfundiso yesizukulwane ngasinye.