Inqubo ifana nenye yezinsika ezihlala njalo zesimiso somthetho waseMelika, iqinisekisa ukuthi amandla kahulumeni asetshenziswa ngokulunga futhi amalungelo awadeli ekulandeleni ubulungisa. Ekulandeleni kwayo, inqubo efanelekile ifuna ukuba ukuqulwa kwamacala angokomthetho kuqhutshwe ngokwemithetho emisiwe nezimiso, futhi iphoqelela ukuhlola okuhluzekile ngezindlela zokuphoqelelwa komthetho ezingase zisetshenziswe ukuqoqa ubufakazi. Lokhu kubaluleke kakhulu emqondweni wokuphenya, lapho ukungalingani kwamandla okusemzisweni phakathi kwezwelo nokwengamele kungaholela ekuxhashazweni. Lokhu kudinga ukuphonswa kwezindlela ezingokomthetho okungaqondakaliyo kusetshenziswa khona ekuhlinzweni kobuphicine ngokwengqondo, futhi kusetshenziswa khona ukukhishwa komthetho wokuvuma nokuqonda. Kodwa lokhu kusebenza njengenqubo ewumthetho womthetho wokuzicima, ukuvinjelwa okucacile ezindisweni, nokubuswa kwezimiso zokwahlulela. Lenqubo yokuhlola inqubo yokuphoqeqesha okungokomthetho, ukumiswa kwemithetho nokusebenza ngokusemthethweni, ukumiswa kwemithetho nokusebenza kwale.

Ukuqonda Inqubo Efanele

Inqubo elindelekile isiqinisekiso somthetho-sisekelo esisekelwe eMthethweni-sisekelo wesihlanu noweshumi nane weSichibiyelo se-U.S. IsiHlanzi sesihlanu sinikeza ukuthi akekho umuntu “ozovela ekuphileni, ngenkululeko, noma ngempahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho,” kuyilapho iSichibiyelo seshumi nane seSichibiyelo sidlulisela lesisivikelo ezinyatheloni zikahulumeni. Lomqondo awufinyeleli; uye waqala phakathi namakhulu eminyaka ukuchazwa komthetho, wahlanganisa kokubili incazelo engokomthetho nesilinganiso esingaphansi.

Inqubo ejwayelekile

Inqubo efanelekile yokunikeza inqubo idinga ukuba uhulumeni alandele izinqubo ezilungile ngaphambi kokuba anciphe umuntu othile ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla. Emkhakheni wophenyo lobugebengu, lokhu kusho ukuthi ukugcinwa komthetho kumelwe kuhloniphe imithetho emisiwe yesaziso, yokuzwa, nokwenza izinqumo ngokungakhethi. Ukuphenywa, inqubo efanelekile engokomthetho igunyaza ukuba kubhekwe ukuthi amalungelo abo afanele ahlolwe. Ngokufana nelungelo lokuhlala athule nelungelo lokululeka noma imuphi umlandeli walawomalungelo awenziwa ngokuzithandela, ngokwazi, nangokuhlakanipha. Lo mgxuma umqulu owengasiselo lokuqala lokuvikela ekuphoqeshekisweni, njengoba ubeka isigaba sokubonisana okuhle phakathi komcaciso nesizwe.

Inqubo Engeyona Inkinga

Ngakolunye uhlangothi, inqubo edingayo eyisisekelo, ivikela amalungelo ayisisekelo ekuphazanyisweni uhulumeni, kungakhathaliseki izinqubo ezisetshenziswayo. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yakholelwa ukuthi amalungelo athile abaluleke kakhulu kangangokuba akukho nqubo kahulumeni (kuhlanganise namasu okuphenya) okuwaphazamisa angenasithakazelo esiphoqelelwe. Ngokwesibonelo, ilungelo lokumelana nokwethuka komuntu siqu nelungelo lokukhipha isijeziso esinesihlukumezo nengavamile liyisivikelo esingaphansi kwenqubo elinganiselwe ngokuqondile. Izindlela zokuphenya. [FLT:] Rhochin v. [FLT:] [1952], iNkanto edumileyo ukuthi ukuphonsa ngokuphonsa ngokupha kwesoli lokusola ubufakazi “impoqo kanye nenqubo efanelekile, ukusungula ukuthi ezinye izindlela azimukeleki, iprojectivescc.

Intuthuko engokomlando yenqubo efanele ibalulekile futhi. Umsuka wayo usukela emuva eMagna Carta (1215), eyathembisa ukuthi akukho muntu okhululekile owayeyo “phunyulwa noma agqunywe ejele... ngaphandle kwesahlulelo esingokomthetho sontanga yakhe noma ngomthetho wezwe.” Umthetho wesiNgisi ovamile wathuthukisa lezisivikelo, uthonya abaQaphi baseMelika. Ngesikhathi iMidlali yamaLungelo yagunyazwa, inqubo efanele yaqondwa kakade njengesivikelo esimelene namandla ombuso omthetho. Lelifa liye laguqula izindinganiso zanamuhla zokuphenya, liqinisekisa ukuthi izindlela ezinjengokuhlupha, ukuzihlukanisa okuthatha isikhathi eside, noma ukusongela akuzona kuphela ezingekhona okubi kodwa ezingekho emthethweni.

Izindlela Zokuxhumana Ezixubile: Imvelo Nomlando

Amasu okuphenya ngokuphambanisa abhekisela ezindleleni eziklanyelwe ukunqoba intando yomuntu, ngokuvamile ngobuhlungu obungokomzimba, ukucindezeleka ngokwengqondo, noma ukuswela. Zisukela onya olusobala − njengokushaya, ukubopha emanzini, noma ukushayeka ugesi — ukukhohlisa okwengeziwe okungathandeki njengokuqwasha, ukugcona, ukubulala ngokugconwa, noma ukuxhashazwa kokwesaba. Ngisho namasu angewona angokomzimba, njengokuqamba amanga ngobufakazi noma ukulimaza amalungu omkhaya, kungawasiza ekusebenziseni amandla okuzikhethela amahhala.

Umlando

Kuwo wonke umlando, ohulumeni baye basebenzisa ukuphenya okucubungulayo ukuze bakhiphe ukuvuma izono nokuhlakanipha. EYurophu yenkathi ephakathi, ukuhlukumeza kwakuyithuluzi elamukelwayo ngokomthetho, ngokuvamile elisetshenziselwa ukuveza “isisekelo” ezicabeni zobugebengu. Ngokwesibonelo, iNkantolo yokuqulwa kwamacala eSpain, yathembela ekuthatheni izinhluphelo eziqinile nezikhuhlaneni. Ngekhulu le-18 leminyaka, izingqondo zobuhlakani zaqala ukuphikisa lemikhuba, ukuphikisa ngokuthi ukuvuma iziqu zangaphansi kwezigwegwegwe kwakungenakwe ngokomthetho. IUnited States yayikwenqaba kakhulu ukuhlushwa ezimithethweni zayo zakuqala, nakuba ukusetshenziswa kwempoqo kungaphelanga inqubo engokomthetho engokomthetho, phakathi nekhulu le-19 leminyaka, “isithathu nelama-egdegree” amasuntswo okushaya okuthatha isikhathi eside, ukubuza nokuncishwa okuvamile eziteshini zamaphoyisa aseMelika. Kwakungaze kufike phakathi kwekhulu leminyaka lama-20.[0]

Muva nje, kuye kwaphikiswana ngamasu okuhlobana kwenqubo yomphakathi ekuhlolweni kwezokuphepha kwezwe. Ngemva kokuhlasela kwe-September 11, uhulumeni wase-U.S. wagunyaza “izindlela zokuphenya ezigunyaziwe” zobuphekula zisola, kuhlanganise nokuthungatha nokucindezeleka. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi lezizindlela zephula inqubo efanelekile nomthetho wezizwe zonke, kuyilapho abasekeli bathi zidingekile ukuze kuvinjelwe ukuhlasela kwesikhathi esizayo. Lempikiswano igcizelela ukuqina okuqhubekayo phakathi kwenhlala-zokulondeka namalungelo, inqubo efanelekile efuna ukulinganisela ngemingceleni ecacile engokomthetho.

Indlela Izindlela Ezifanele Zokwenza Inqubo Encane

Inqubo elindelekile ibeka izingqimba eziningi zesivikelo ezicindezela ngokuqondile izindlela zokuphenya. Lemikhawulo ibekwa ngokwezimiso, ekulungiseni umthetho-mthetho, nakwezokwahlulela. Ngezansi kunezinqubo eziyinhloko ezingokomthetho.

Amalungelo KaMiranda NeSichibiyelo Sesihlanu

Mhlawumbe inqubo edumile efanelekile yokuvikela i- isixwayiso se-Mira. Miranda v. I-Arizona, iNkantolo ePhakamileyo yathi ukuphenywa kwesigwebo kuyinto engokwemvelo, futhi ngenxa yalokho, kusola ukuthi kumelwe kwaziswe ngeSimemezelo sabo seFind kwesokudla ngokumelene nokwethulwa kwemithetho kanye neSiphakamiso sabo seSithandathu. Isinqumo sidinga amaphoyisa ukuba axwayise abasolwa ngaphambi kokuphenywa: ukuthi banelungelo lokuthula, ukuthi noma yini abathiwa yona ingasetshenziswa enkantolo, ukuthi banelungelo lokusebenzisa ummeli, futhi ummeli uzakumiswa uma bengenakunikezwa isixwayiso. Uma benikezwa noma yiziphi izixwayiso ezinkantolo ezinikezwayo.

I- umthetho i-Moranda uyisilinganiso esinamandla sokuphoqelela ngoba inika usongo lokumelana nokucindezela. Uma umsoli osolwayo ecela ilungelo lokuthula noma ukucela ummeli, imibuzo kumelwe iphele. Lokhu kususa ithuba lokuphenya noma ukuphonsa ngonya. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ukubukana kwanoma yiliphi ilungelo kulokhu kulwa nalamalungelo kuyacubungula: uma amaphoyisa esebenzisa izinsongo, izithembiso, noma ukuxhaphaza kwengqondo ukuze abangele ukuba ummeli ahlukume, kuzakuthathwa njengokungasebenzi. Ngaleyo ndlela inqubo iqinisekisa ukuthi amasu asebenza ngokusebenza ngokuqhubekayo angeke asetshenziswe ekunqandeni isivikelo esiyinhloko ekuzivikeleni komuntu siqu.

Isivikelo Ekuzichayeni

ISichibiyelo sesihlanu sokuzijezisa somthetho sivimbela uhulumeni ukuba aphoqelele umuntu ukuba abe ufakazi ngokumelene nawo. Lokhu kudlulela ngalé kwezixwayiso; kusho ukuthi noma yibuphi ubufakazi obutholakala ngokuphoqelelwa ngokomzimba noma ngokwengqondo busolwa ngokwemvelo. INkantolo Ephakeme iphinde yathi ukuvuma izono kumelwe kube ngokukhululekile futhi kuzenzeke ngokuzithandela, hhayi umkhiqizo wanoma yiliphi “ithonya elingafanele.” [[FLT:] Spano v. New York[FLT:] [1959], iNkanto ebekwe inqaba isiqinisekiso lapho amaphoyisa esola khona amahora ayisishiyagalombili ngokuqhubekayo, ayisebenzisi inqubo yakhe engokomzwelo. INkantolo yasho ukuthi kufanelekile “ukuziphatha komthetho owenziwayo. [FLT] [FLT] [F] [FM] [59]

Lemfundiso iveza indinganiso ecacile: uma umthetho usebenzisa izindlela zokuvimbela ukulala ngezansi − njengokuncisha ukusolwa kokulala, ukudla, noma ukunakekelwa kwezokwelapha, noma ukulimala okusongelayo − noma ikuphi ukuvuma izono okuwumphumela kucatshangelwa ngokungazinze. Umthwalo ushintshela ekumangaleleni ukuze ubonise ukuthi unamandla kakhulu ngokunengqondo. Lesithiyo somthetho sivimbela ukuphoqelelwa ngoba ngisho noma uvuma izono kungatholakala, kungenzeka ukuthi ukhishwe ngaphandle, wenze umzamo ube yize.

Ukuvinjelwa Kokuhlukunyezwa Nokuphathwa Ngonya, Okungavamile Noma Okungenabuntu

ISichibiyelo Sesibhozo senqabela “isijeziso sokungalawuleki nesingajwayelekile,” futhi nakuba sisebenza ngokuyinhloko ekujeziseni ngemva kokuqiniseka, izimiso zaso zinikeza futhi imingcele efanelekile lapho kuphenywa izicelo. Ngaphezu kwalokho, i-Centument Procession Claus ngokwayo ivimbela ukuziphatha okuthi“ kulahle unembeza.” Njengoba kuphawulwe Rochin [[FLT:] , ukumpompa isisu esisolwayo siyimpikiswa kakhulu. Umthetho wesifunda uvimbela ukuhlushwa okusobala ngaphansi kwe-18 U.C.

Umthetho wezizwe zonke uqinisa lokhu kuvinjelwa. Inhlangano yeZizwe Ezihlangene Against Torture (CAT), eyagunyazwa yi-U.S. ngo-1994, ifuna ukuba abagxathu bavimbele ukuhlukunyezwa nonya, ukuphathwa ngonya, noma ukuphathwa kabi. Nakuba i-U.S. iphikise ngencazelo ye- “creauel, infection, noma ukuphathwa kabi,” inqubo efanele yezimiso ezivimbela izindlela eziningi zokuhlupha, njengokungakhubazeki okuqhubekayo noma ukubulawa ngokubhuqa. [untmobate yaseGuantmo Bay backee, , izinkantolo zasebenzisa inqubo efanelekile ezinkonzweni zempi, ziphethe ukuthi izinkulumo ezikhokhelwayo zisezincupheni eziqinile.

Ukubusa Kwamacala Nokuphatha Kokwahlulela

Enye yemikhawulo ephumelela kakhulu yenqubo emisiwe inqubo emisiwe, evimbela ukusetshenziswa kobufakazi obutholwa ngokwephulwa kwamalungelo omthetho-sisekelo. Mapp v.Ohio [1961], iNkantolo yasebenzisa umthetho ezinkantolo zikahulumeni, ibambe ukuthi ubufakazi obuthola ngokungemthetho abunakusetshenziswa ekuqulweni. Ukuphenyiswa, lokhu kusho ukuthi ukuvuma okukhishwa ngokuphoqelelwa kungenziwanga ngokuphoqelelwa, ngisho noma iphoqelelwa kungalingana nokuhlushwa ngo-$_arene. Umthetho udala isisusa esinamandla sokugcinwa komthetho ukuze kugwenywe inqubo yokulawula inqubo eyingozi, ngoba noma ibuphi ubufakazi obungcolile abunakali, bungasetshenziswa ngokulula, futhi cishe kwenze icala lilula.

Ukuphathwa kwezokwahlulela kuyindlela ephoqelelwa ngayo inqubo efanele. Phakathi nokuqulwa kwecala ngaphambi kokwahlulela, abameli bangakubekela inselele ukungethembisi kokuvuma izono ngokuphoqelelwa. Khona - ke abahluleli bagcina ukuzwa okusobala − cishe kubizwa imanda noma ukuvalwa kwezindlebe [lapho behlola ubufakazi obungabhekisiselwe phambili]. Okucatshangelwayo kuhlanganisa inkathi yokusola, ukuhlakanipha, nesimo sengqondo; isikhathi nemibandela yokubuza; futhi noma isiphi isimo somzimba esisetshenziswayo. Uma uma uma umahluleli ethola ukuphoqelelwa, ukuvuma kuyacinywa. Lokhu kuqinisekisa ukuthi inqubo yokuwezahlulelwa ayiyona nje kodwa isebenza kahle.

Izimpawu Eziwuphawu Ziyehlisa Imingcele Yenqubo Elindelekile

Izinqumo eziningana zeNkantolo Ephakeme ziye zaveza ukuhlobana phakathi kwenqubo efanele nokuphenywa kwemibuzo okuhambisanayo.

Brown v. Mississippi[[FL:1] (1936)

Lelicala lalihilela abalimi abathathu abamnyama abashaywayo futhi bashaywa kwaze kwaba yilapho bevuma ukuthi babulewe. Izwe lavuma izono, futhi abamangalelwa balahlwa icala. INkantolo Ephakeme yaphendula ngazwilinye, ibambelele ekutheni “igumbi lokuhlushwa lingase lingathathelwa indawo isikhundla sokunikeza ubufakazi.” INkantolo yamemezela ukuthi ukuvuma izono ngenxa yobudlova kuphula inqubo efanelekile, njengoba bona bengathembekile futhi becasula “lezozimiso eziyisisekelo zenkululeko nobulungisa ezisezisekelweni zazo zonke izinhlangano zethu zomphakathi nezezombangazwe.” Lendaba yayiyindaba ebalulekile yokuqala eyabeka isilinganiso sesivikelo kamuva.

[[UMTH:0] Miranda v. Arizona[ (1966)

Njengoba kuxoxwe ngenhla, Mira yamisa imfuneko yezixwayiso zamaphoyisa. INkantolo yaqaphela ukuthi ukuphenywa kwelungelo lokunakekela umntwana “ngokungaguquguquki” nokuthi ngaphandle kwezivikelo ezicacile, ukusolwa kungase kuvimbele ukugcinwa komthetho, ukusolwa kungazizwa uphoqelelwe ukukhuluma. Isinqumo sakha umthetho okhanyayo oye wacwengisiswe phakathi namashumi eminyaka kodwa ohlala usesiphakathi enqubeni esifanele isivikelo. Nakuba abagxeki beye baphikisa ngokuthi Maranda [] uvimbela ukugcinwa komthetho, kubonisa ukuthi ube nomphumela omncane ekuhlolweni okusemthethweni, nakuba ukunciphisa ukusakazeka kwenqubo yenqubo esetshenziswayo.

Cavez v. Martinez (2003)

Lelicala ladingidwa ukuthi noma usolwayo ongakamangalelwa wayengamangalelwa yini ngenqubo efanele yokushaywa impoqo ngemva kokuphenywa ngecala. U-Orionio Martinez wadutshulwa amaphoyisa futhi kamuva waphenywa ngonya lapho esesibhedlela, enganaki ukukhononda kwakhe ngobuhlungu. INkantolo yanquma ukuthi i-Ganisement Procestion Claus aywophulwanga ngoba uMartinez wayengamangalelwanga. Kodwa icala laqokomisa imingcele yenqubo efanelekile: livikela ngokuyinhloko ekuthatheni isinyathelo sikahulumeni esimelene nobugebengu.

Ithonya Emikhubeni Yokuphoqelelwa Komthetho

Imingcele yenqubo ishintshe indlela amaphoyisa aphenya ngayo. Usongo lokucindezela ubufakazi luye lwashukumisela izinhlangano ezimisa umthetho ukuba zithathe izinhlelo zokuqeqesha ezigcizelela izindlela zokuphatha okuhle, ezisekelwe ekubopheleleni kunokuphoqelela. Izindlela zanamuhla ezingcono kakhulu zigxile ekwakheni ukuthembana, ukusebenzisa imibuzo esobala, nokugwema izithembiso noma izinsongo. Izindlela ezisetshenziswa kakhulu “Reid Technique,” nakuba ngezinye izikhathi zigxekwa, zihlanganisa ukuvikela okunjalo njengokusola amalungelo azo nokugwema amandla angokomzimba. Ngokuphambene, izindlela zokuhloba ezisetshenziswayo zingezizona nje kuphela ezingekho emthethweni kodwa ezilimazayo, njengoba ziveza ukuvuma okungamangazayo.

Ukucwaninga kusekela umbono wokuthi ukuphoqelela akusebenzi. Ukuhlola kwe-Innocence Project kuthole ukuthi ukugcizelela ushintsho oluyiphutha lwezinguquko cishe kumaphesenti angu-25 ezinkolelo ezingalungile kamuva kwapheshulwa ubufakazi be-DNA, ngokuvamile ngenxa yokuphenya okuhambisanayo. Inqubo yokuvikela isiza ekunciphiseni ukungabi nabulungisa okunjalo ngokufuna ukukhuthuza nokubukeza okungagunyazi. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ukugcizelelwa kokuvuma ngomthetho kuholele kushintsho olusemthethweni, njengokuqopha izicelo zemvume yokuqulwa kwemvume. Njengango-2024, izifunda ezingaphezu kuka-2024 nemithetho ye-Grifathi efuna ukuba kubhalwe i-elective ukuphelwa kwemibuzo ye-electivesss noma ingxenye. Ukubhala kunikeza ubufakazi obuveza umgomo walokho okwenzekayo, okwenza kube nzima kakhulu ukuba amaphoyisa abhale noma abhale amazwi avinwe ngaphandle kobufakazi.

Abanye baye baphikisa ngokuthi inqubo efanele ivimbela ngokungadingekile imingcele evimbela ikhono lomthetho lokuphoqelela ukumiswa komthetho ukuba ulwembu. Nokho, uhlelo lomthetho-sisekelo alukwenqabi ukubuza okuphumelelayo − kumane nje kunqabela izindlela eziqeda inkululeko yokuzikhethela. Ukuphoqelela ukuphoqelelwa komthetho kungasebenzisa ubufakazi obuhleliwe ukuze kubangele ukungavumelani, futhi kusebenzise ukucindezela okuthambile. Isihluthulelo siwukuthi isinqumo salowo osolwayo sokukhuluma kumelwe sibe yimiphumela yesinqumo sawo siqu, hhayi semigqomo noma ubuhlungu. Oregon v. Elstad [18]), iNkanto ephawula ukuthi “amaphoyisa angenza ngokufanelekile angenzanga lutho ekukholiseni nasekuxoxeni, uma nje engabekeli okufunwayo.

Isiphetho

Inqubo efanelekile ivimbela ukusetshenziswa kabi kwezindlela zokuphenya ngokunyenyiswa. Ngokuvikela okuqinile kwezesiHlanu, zesithupha, nezeshumi nane, isimiso somthetho se-U.S. iqinisekisa ukuthi ukugcinwa komthetho akunakubheka ekuhlukunyezweni, izinsongo, noma ukusetshenziswa kwengqondo ukuze kukhishwe ukwaziswa. Izixwayiso, imfundiso yokuncintisana, ukuvinjelwa kokuhlushwa, nokuvinjelwa kokuhlushwa, nokuhlelwa kwemithetho eqenjini ngeqembu kwakha ulwembu lwezindinganiso ezingokomthetho ezilinganisela inqubo ekhonweni. Ukwengameleli kusebenza njengokuhlola kokugcina, ukukhipha ubufakazi obungcolile nokubeka izikhulu icala. Nakuba izinkulumo eziphathelene zokuphenya ngezindlela ze-mongosimo yesizwe ziqhubeka, isimiso esiyisisekelo sihlala sikhona: uhulumeni kumelwe ukuphathwa ngesithunzi nangenhlonipho, ngisho nalapho ufuna ukuhlola ukwahlulela ngokulunga. Lokhu kuqinisa ukuthembeka kobulungisa kuphela, kodwa futhi kuqinisa inqubo yobulungisa kuphela.

[[Umthetho:0] Izikhombo ze-External:[[[Umthetho:1]