Isingeniso: Isithunzi Sokubusa

Isakhiwo sesimiso sezombangazwe sikahulumeni sinquma indlela amandla ahlukaniswa ngayo phakathi kwegunya eliphethe nezindawo zalo ezihlangeneyo. Lokhu kwabiwa kuthonya amandla obunye besizwe nezinga lokuzibusa ngokwezifunda. Phakathi kwezithombe ezicwaningwa kakhulu kungu ebumbeneyo[ [naye festerl[[FLT]l] [FLT]r [[FLT]] . Lamalungiselelo amabili ahlala emaphethelweni ahlukene engxenyeni ye-odwa, ngalinye elinezinqubo ezihlukene zokulinganisela izithakazelo zamalungu alo. Ukuqonda ama-fluethies abalulekile kososayensi bezombangazwe, abenzi bezimiso zezimiso, nezakhamuzi ezifuna ukuhlola izimiso zezifunda zanamuhla.

Lesi sihloko sinikeza ukuhlaziywa okukhulu kwezimiso zobukhomanisi nohulumeni, ukuhlola izisekelo zabo ezicatshangelwayo, ukuziphendukela kwemvelo, ukufezeka kwangempela kwezwe, kanye nokungezwani okuqhubekayo phakathi kobunye nokuzimela. Sizohlola indlela isimiso ngasinye esibuguqula ngayo ubuhlobo phakathi kohulumeni besizwe nobesifunda, ukudayisa okuhilelekile, nezifundo ezingasetshenziswa ngezinselele zanamuhla zokubusa.

Ukuchaza Isimiso Samakhofi

Isimiso sokuhlanganisa (ngokuvamile okubhekiselwa kuso njengesivumelwano) sinyundelwa yimibuso ezimele, ebusayo ukuthi ngokuzithandela iphathisa igunya elilinganiselwe egunyeni elisenkabeni. Kuleli lungiselelo, amazwe angamalungu ahlala eyiziphathi eziyinhloko zamandla ezombangazwe, futhi uhulumeni oyinhloko ukhona kuphela ngenjongo echazwa kancane kuphela − labo abanzima kuhulumeni owodwa ukuba balawule bebodwa, njengokuvikelana, ukuxhumana kwamanye amazwe, noma imali eyodwa. Igunya eliyinhloko alinawo amandla okuphoqelela ukuba liphoqelele ngokuqondile ezakhamuzini lamalungu; kunalokho, kumelwe bathembele ekubambisanani nasekuvumeni kohulumeni.

Izinqumo ziphawulwe ngesikhungo esibuthakathaka [ esiphansi kanye [FT:2] nezikhokhisi eziqinile[. Uhulumeni ophethe ngeke ubeke intela, uphakamise ibutho ngokwawo, noma udlulise imithetho esebenza ngokuqondile kubantu abangahloniphiswanga yizifundazwe ezingamalungu. Izinqumo zivame ukudinga ukuvunyelwa okukhulu noma ukuvunyelwa okungabodwa, nikeza umbuso ngamunye isilinganiso esiphumelelayo phezu kwemithetho emikhulu. Lesakhiwo sihlela ubukhosi besifunda ngaphezu kwazo zonke ezinye, senza ukusabela okukhulu ezithakazelweni ezihlukahlukene zamalungu abo kodwa ngokuvamile ngokwezenzo ezihlangene.

Izibonelo Ezingokomlando Zemibono

Isibonelo esidumile kakhulu esingokomlando yi- United States ngaphansi kweZihlokwana zeConfederation (1781-1789). Ngemva kokumemezela ukukhululeka kuBrithani, imibuso yokuqala engu-13 yakha inyunyana ekhululekile eyalondoloza ubukhosi bombuso ngamunye, inkululeko, kanye nenkululeko. Uhulumeni ophethe wawuyiNgqungquthela engekho ngokomthetho wentela noma ibhizinisi elilawula izifunda zomhlaba. Ukungakwazi ukuphakamisa inzuzo noma ukuphoqelela izivumelwano eziholela ezingxabanweni zezomnotho nezintengantengantenga zezombangazwe, ekugcineni kwabangela ukuthathwa kombuso ngamunye we-U.S. Umthetho-Constitution nesimiso sombuso.

Isibonelo samuva kakhulu yi- ye-EUN Union (EFLT:1) eveza izici ezithile ezihlangeneyo. Ilungu le-EU linemibuso ehlala izimele, kodwa liye laphathisa amazwe athile (njengemithetho yezentengiselwano, umthetho wokuncintisana, nenkambiso yemali yamalungu e-euro zonicane(ukuhlanganisa) nezinhlangano ze-EUU) njenge-European Commission, i-Council of the European Union, nePhalamentium yaseYurophu. Kodwa i-EU ayisona isivumelwano esiphelele ngenxa yokuthi izinhlangano zayo zingakhipha imithetho ebopha imingcele ethinta amalungu amalungu ezwe nezakhamuzi zazo, futhi iNkathi ye-Europe ye-U ye-US inegunya lokuchaza umthetho we-EUS.

Ezinye iziphakamiso ezingokomlando zihlanganisa i- yase Switzerland (1291-1798) [1] ukuhlangana okuxekethile kwama-canton okuvele nje kuphela kwaba yisifundazwe sikahulumeni ngo-1848(ne-48] kanye ukuvunywa kweRhine (18669-1813), i-fulengikazi ye-astertiessss. E-Afrika, i-frence-frea-ter [FLT] efish [FL:4] i-Conformation (19989))[FLT] ihlangene ne-Senegalga kanye ne-egameya ngaphansi kwe-defalm, kodwa yahluleka ngenxa yokuncibilika kwezombangazwe.

Amandla Nobuthakathaka Bezimpikiswano

Amandla

  • Iziqu zesifunda ezilondolozwe:[ Izifunda zelungu zingavumelanisa izinqubo ezithandwayo zendawo ngaphandle kokuphazanyiswa yigunya elisenkabeni.
  • Ukukwazi nokuhlola: izifunda ezihlukene zingasebenza njenge “zici ezisetshenziswayo zentando yeningi,” izimiso zokuhlola ezingase zamukelwe ezinye kamuva.
  • [ IKonsenus ukwakhiwa: Idinga ukuxoxisana nokuhlehla, kungadala izivumelwano eziqinile kakhulu uma zifinyelelwa.

Ubuthakathaka

  • Ukwenza izinqumo ezingaphumeleli: Izimfuneko zokungalingani zivame ukuholela ekuthatheni i-griplock nokuhluleka ukusabela ezinkingeni (isib., i-U.S. akuphumelelanga ukuhlanganisa ibutho lesizwe ukuze kuvinjelwe uVukelelo luka-Shay ngo-1786].
  • Ukugcinwa kwemisebe ye-Weak: Igunya eliyinhloko alinawo amandla okuphoqelela ukuthobelana kwezifundazwe, okuholela ezinkingeni ezikhululekile.
  • Ubunye besizwe obungaqinile: ngaphandle kwezinhlangano eziqinile, ngokuvamile uphawu luhlala lugxile esifundeni kunokuba lube isizwe, okwenza ukuhlanganisa kube lula ukuqothulwa.

Ukuchaza Isimiso Somphakathi

Isimiso sikahulumeni sihlukanisa ubukhosi phakathi kukahulumeni omkhulu nohulumeni besifunda (ngokuvamile ababizwa ngokuthi izifundazwe, izifundazwe, noma amacanton). Zombili lezi zigaba zithola igunya kuzo ngomthetho-sisekelo obhaliwe onika imibuso ekhethekile ngayinye, futhi futhi ngeke kushintshe ngokungazelelwe. i-Federalism iklanyelwe ukufinyelela indawo ephakathi: uhulumeni oyinhloko usingatha izindaba zezwe ezikhathazayo (isimiso sangaphandle, isimiso semali, ezentengiselwano zezwe), kuyilapho ohulumeni bephethe izindaba zendawo (imfundo, imishini yokuthutha, imishini, ukuthutha, ukusetshenziswa kwezwe).

Ezimisweni zikahulumeni, izakhamuzi zingaphansi kwezinhlangano ezimbili ezibusayo ezihlukene: uhulumeni wesizwe nohulumeni wazo wezwe. Umthetho-sisekelo uhlanganisa uhlu lwamandla ahlelwayo kahulumeni ophakathi, onamandla aphinde ashiywe ezindaweni. Lelilungiselelo lidala ubukhosi obubodwa lapho zombili amazinga asebenza khona ngokwawo phakathi kwezimbulunga zawo, kodwa ngokuvamile asebenza futhi asebenzisane ngemifelandawonye.

Izici Eziyinhloko Zezimiso Zokuhlola

  • Ukuhlukanisa imibuso: Ohulumeni bezwe nabasendaweni banemibuso ekhethekile nehlangeneyo ebekwe ngokucacile emthethweni ophakeme.
  • Isishaya-mthetho seBHASIKA:[ Ngokuvamile isishaya-mthetho sesizwe sihlanganisa indlu emelelwe umphakathi (umz., Indlu yabameleli) nendlu emelela amazwe ngokulinganayo (umz., iSigeqe) ukuze kuvikelwe izithakazelo zesifunda.
  • Inkantolo ezimele: Inkantolo engokomthetho noma inkantolo ephakeme ixazulula izingxabano phakathi kwamazinga kahulumeni.
  • Izifunda ezizimele kwezombangazwe:[ ama- States anomthetho-mthetho wawo, izishaya-mthetho, iziphathi, kanye nezigebengu.
  • Intela ehlanganyelwe:[ Zombili amazinga angakhokha intela ye-levy, nakuba uhulumeni wezwe uvame ukuba nemithombo ebanzi yemali.

Izibonelo Ezivelele Zomphakathi

I- iUnited States iyisimiso sombuso esiyinhloko, esimiswe nguMthetho-sisekelo wekhulu ngo-1787. Uhulumeni wezwe ubala amandla (I, iSiqesha 8), kuyilapho iSichibiyelo seshumi sigcinela wonke amanye amandla ezwe noma abantu. Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, amandla ombuso anwetshwa ngezentengiselwano zeChwebo Clause, iMpi Yomphakathi, i-antelligation alungiselwe, futhi inikeza izinhlelo ze-in-aid, kodwa iphethe igunya elibalulekile ezindaweni ezinjengobulungisa, imfundo, nokuphatha izwe.

IsiJamani siyisibonelo esivelele sesimiso sikahulumeni (ngokuvamile esibizwa ngokuthi “i-“decutive mentalism”). Uhulumeni wezwe (Bund) uhlanganisa izikhotha, kodwa izifundazwe (Länder) zisebenzisa imithetho eminingi. I-Bundesrat (indlu engaphezulu) imelela ohulumeni be-Länder, ibanika ithonya eliqondise emthethweni wezwe othinta izithakazelo zabo.

Indiya yamukela isimiso sikahulumeni esinesu elinamandla lokuhlalisa izinhlobonhlobo zolimi, inkolo, nobuzwe. Umthetho-sisekelo uhlela izihloko ngaphansi koHlu lwe-Union, uHlu, noLuhlu lweZwe. Uma kuvela impi, u-Union u-Union uyanqoba. Naphezu kwesimiso sawo sombuso, i-Indiya iye yabona izikhathi zokuhlalisa, ikakhulukazi phakathi nezimo eziphuthumayo.

Ezinye izifundazwe zikahulumeni zihlanganisa i-Canada, Australia, Brazil[, kanye [[FLT] Mexico Mexico]. Isiboniso ngasinye sihlanganisa ukuhlobana okuhlukile nezimo zendawo, umzekelo, isimiso seCanada sihlanganisa i-aymmeganityism (umz., Quebec nesivikelo somphakathi esihlukile nesomdabuko).

Amandla Nobuthakathaka Bezimiso Zomphakathi

Amandla

  • Ukuhlukanisa phakathi kobunye nokuhlukahluka: uFederalism uvumela izifunda ukuba zilondoloze izimpawu ezihlukile kuyilapho zifaka isandla emsebenzini wesizwe.
  • [[UMTL:0] uphumelele ekulawuleni: Izinkinga zendawo zingaxazululwa endaweni, ebuzweni, ukugwema inqubo eyodwa-yonke.
  • Secte kumandla aphakathi: Amazwe angasebenza njengezinto eziphikisana negunya lesizwe, avikele inkululeko.
  • Ukuguqula kanye nokusungula: Amazwe angathatha izinqubo zobuphayona (umz., inguquko yezenhlalakahle, umthetho wendawo ezungezile) ongase kamuva usakazeke ezweni lonke.

Ubuthakathaka

  • Ukucubungula kanye nobunkimbinkimbi: Izingqimba eziningi zikahulumeni zingaholela ezingxenyeni ezihlukene, ekungasebenzini kwe-bureaucracy, nasekudidekeni.
  • [[QUE:0] Ukulingana phakathi kwezisho:[ Izifunda ezicebile zinganikeza izinkonzo ezingcono kunalezo ezimpofu, zikhulise izinkathazo zokungalingani.
  • Izimpi zeFederal-pretate: zilwa ngokuqhubekayo ngobukhulu obufanele bezinga ngalinye lamandla angaholela ezimpini zomthetho nasematheni ezombangazwe.
  • Itshe elilawula i-grid lock: ohulumeni abahlukene kuwo womabili amazinga bangaphazamisa isimiso sokuhlanganisa.

I makuqhathaniswe i-Confederal ne-Federal System: Unity--Idenomy Trade-express

Zonke izimiso zezombangazwe kumelwe zixazulule ukungezwani okuyinhloko phakathi kwesifiso sokuthatha isinyathelo (ubunye) nesifiso sokuzibusa ngokwazo. Izivumelwano kanye nokuhlobisa kumelela amaphuzu amabili ahlukene alolu hlobo.

Kumthetho wokuvumelana, uzibuse bunezelwe ngokuncishiswa kwesizwe. Uhulumeni ophethe unamandla amancane okuphoqelela izindinganiso ezivamile, ukukhipha imithombo, noma ukuhlanganisa izenzo ezihlangene ezinjongo zesizwe. Lokhu kungaba okufanelekile uma amazwe ahlanganyela izici ezivamile futhi afisa ukubambisana kuphela ezindaweni ezilinganiselwe, njengasemfelazweni wokuzivikela noma ezindaweni ezizimele. Nokho, iziphakamiso zilwa kanzima ukwenza ngokuvumelana nemithetho eqinile, ikakhulukazi ngezikhathi zempi noma zezomnotho. Umlando ubonisa ukuthi iziphakamiso eziningi ezihlanganyelwayo ziguqukela ezindaweni eziswaneni noma ekuncipheni, njengoba zingenandawo yokuzimela izinselele ezinde.

Esimisoni sikahulumeni, ubunye bomhlaba wonke bungamiswa ngokuvikela izikhundla zesifunda ngesiqinisekiso somthetho-sisekelo. Uhulumeni ophethe unegunya lokuphoqelela imithetho yesizwe, intela, futhi unikeze impahla yomphakathi, kodwa uhulumeni ulondoloza izinqongozo eziqinile zomuntu siqu. Ukulinganisa kungashintsha phakathi kwesikhathi: izimiso zikahulumeni zingaba phakathi kakhulu (njengase-United States ngemva kwe-New Accontial) noma iphuzu elihloniphekile (njengaseCanada nge-devolution). Iphuzu elibalulekile liwukuthi izimiso zikahulumeni zingazivumelanisa nezimo ngaphandle kokwehlukana, ngoba zinezimiso zesinqumo esibumbeneyo sokwenza nokuphikisana okukhona.

Ukuhlolwa Kwendaba: Ukusuka Ekuhlanganeni Kuya E - United States

Ukushintsha kwezihloko ze-Confederation ukuya kuMthetho-sisekelo kubonisa ubuthakathaka obungokwemvelo bokubusa kwesivumelwano. Ngaphansi kweZiphakamiso, iSishaya-mthetho sasingenakukwazi ukumisa ibutho elivikela izimpi ezingenisweni zaseBrithani, alikwazi ukulawula ibhizinisi phakathi kwezifundazwe (ziholela ekuhwebeni kwempi nezikhulu), futhi azinakukwazi ukukhokha izikweletu zempi zenguquko. Lokhu kususa ubunye obuphawulekayo kuShays (ukuvukela kwabalimi ababoletwa isikweleti eMassachuse) kwaqinisekisa abaholi abaningi ukuthi uhulumeni onamandla kakhulu. Umthetho ophumela ekudaleni kwale isimiso sombuso esinesikhulu esiphethe esinamandla, isikhulu sesizwe, isikhulu sesizwe, nekhono lokukhokha intela nezentengo yohwebo. Nakuba lokhu kwandisa ubunye ubunye ubunye ubunye obumangalisayo bezwe kanye nentuthuko kwezomnotho, nakuba kwabangela ukuphikisana kwezikhulu zezizwe zezizwe zezizwe eziseMassachuseMassachusettston.

Ukuhlolwa Kwezimo: I - European Union Njengesibonelo Se - Hybrid

I-European Union ivame ukuchazwa ngokuthi “ivumelana” ngoba amazwe ayo agcina ubukhosi, kodwa anezici ezihlangene. I-EU inemali yayo (ye-eurozone), ibhange eliphakathi (ECB), ipalamende ekhethwe ngokuqondile, nenkantolo ebusayo ebopha izikhundla ezihlangene emazweni angamalungu. Kodwa, i-EU ayinayo inkambiso ehlangeneyo, futhi ayinawo amandla azimele, futhi ingenza kuphela ngaphakathi kwamandla agunyazwelwe yi-Treaccone. Inyunyana ihlala iyimizamo ekhethekile ehlanganisa ubukhosini ngaphandle kokwakha isikweleti esiphelele sezwezwezwe. Ngonyaka wamuva nje inhlekelele ye-Yuronicalo, inkinga yokufuduka, i-Brexit , iveza kokubili ukuklanywa kwenhlangano ye-EUS (emperal) futhi idinga izinselele ezisemfazweyo.

Izizathu Zobunye Besizwe Nezokuzisebenzela Kwesifunda Ezombangazwe Zangesikhathi Esidlule

Ukukhetha phakathi kwamalungiselelo e-confederal nohulumeni akuyona nje imfundo; kunemiphumela enzima. Amazwe abhekene nemiphakathi ejulile yezinhlanga, yolimi, noma yenkolo ngokuvamile abheka ubuzwe njengethuluzi lokuhlanganisa umbuso ngokunika amaqembu amancane ubukhosi. Izibonelo zihlanganisa iBeligium[ (ihlukene phakathi kwemiphakathi ye-Flemish ne-French), i-Spain [i] (nemiphakathi efana ne-Catalonian ne-Bacquean ,) kanye nokucindezela [FLT] [FLT] [FLT] [F:5] [ioct] (iorgan kanye ne-fromes) kulokhu kuzama ukuhlanganisa] ukubusa.

Ngakolunye uhlangothi, akuvamile ukuba kusetshenziswe izifekethiso ze-consone esizwe sanamuhla ngenxa yokuthi zibuthakathaka kakhulu ukuba zingalawula izomnotho nezimiso zezenhlalakahle ezenhlalo. Nokho, isimiso sokubambisana siyaqhubeka ezinhlanganweni zomhlaba wonke nasezindaweni zokuhwebelana, lapho amazwe abambisana khona kodwa agcine ubukhosi obuphelele. [ African Union kanye ne-ASCT] yezizwe zaseNingizimu mpumalanga ye-Asia (INHLO) isebenza ezinqumweni ezihlangeneyo ezivumelanayo, ilinganisela ikhono lazo lokusebenzisa imithetho ehlangeneyo.

Ingxoxo eqhubekayo emazweni anjengo- Myamar (lapho izinhlanga ezimbalwa zifuna khona uhulumeni wesizwe ozimele kanye ] nesiSudan (owazama uhulumeni ozomele ngaphansi konyaka ka-2005 onokuthula) ibonisa ukuthi umklamo wesimiso sikahulumeni kazwelonke unganquma ukuthi izwe lingafinyelela ukuthula okuhlala njalo noma amaslide enkundleni yempi yangaphakathi. Uma ilungiselelo lombuso lithathwa njengenswela (umz., ukumelelwa okungalinganiyo, ukwabiwa kwempahla), empeleni lingakhomba izikhalo zesifunda kunokuba lixazulule. Ngokufanayo, izimiso zombuso eziphakathi zingaqeda i-Calcime, ukuphelisa izinhlangano.

Indima Yemithetho - sisekelo Nemisebenzi Yezomthetho

Kokubili izimiso zomthetho ezisungulweyo ezimisa ukusakazwa kwamandla. Ekuhlanganeni, isivumelwano noma ukuhlanganiswa kungasuswa yi-propati engulungu,(ukhuseleko luvunyelwe ngokwesiko). Esimisweni sikahulumeni, umthetho-sisekelo uphakeme, futhi i-secession ngokuvamile ayivunyelwe ngokomthetho noma inzima kakhulu (njengoba iboniswa yiMpi Yangaphakathi yase-U.S.). Umthetho-sisekelo ubuye umise izindlela zokuthuthukisa ukusakazwa kwamandla, okungaqina (ukuthatha i-amandla amakhulu) noma ukuvumelana nezimo.

Izinkantolo zomthetho-mthetho zinendima ebaluleke kakhulu ekuchazeni imingcele yegunya. Ngokwesibonelo, e-United States, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yaguqula uhulumeni ngecala eliyingqophamlando elinjenge *McCulloch v. Maryland* (1819), eyamisa imibuso eqondene nohulumeni kahulumeni kahulumeni, kanye * neUnited States v. Lopez* (1995), eyabuye yaqala amandla kahulumeni ngaphansi kwe-Cummer Claus. Amajaji afanayo akhona eJalimane (Inkantolo ye-Federal Constitution), eNdiya (inderali yeNkantolo) kanye nezinye izime zokubulisa.

Isiphetho: Ukukhetha Ukulinganisela Okufanele

Azikho izimiso ezihlangene noma eziwumbuso ezingcono kakhulu ngokwemvelo; ukufaneleka kwazo kuxhomeke emongweni womlando womphakathi, ukuhlukahluka, nemigomo yezombangazwe. Izivumelwano ziphumelela ekulondolozeni ukuzibusa kodwa ngokuvamile zihluleka ukunikeza ukubusa nobunye okuphumelelayo. Amanxusa ashaya ukulinganisa okuqinile kodwa adinga ukuxoxisana okuqhubekayo nokulungiswa ukuze agweme ukuwela ezindaweni eziphakathi noma eziqhekekayo ngaphansi kwemikhosi yezentengiselwano.

Kubenzi bezimiso, isifundo esiyinhloko yilendaba yokuklama. Ukusakaza kwemibuso kumelwe kuhlolwe ngokweqiniso eliqondile lombuso. Kwezinye izimo, i-aymetric unistism , lapho izifunda ezihlukahlukene zinezilinganiso ezihlukene ze-liqualis/i-acan ivumelana nezidingo ezihlukene. Kwabanye, i-projectal ingahlanganisa ukuvumelana namandla kahulumeni. Ekugcineni, impumelelo yanoma isiphi isimiso ixhomeke ekuzimiseleni kwabaholi nezakhamuzi ukuhlonipha imithetho engokomthetho, ukungenela inqunyelwano enokuthula, futhi ibeke phambili impumelelo efanayo engcono kakhulu ngenxa yezithakazelo zesifunda.

Ngokufunda izimiso ezihlangene nezikahulumeni, sithola ukuqonda ngokukhetha okuyisisekelo okulawula imiphakathi yezombangazwe. Njengoba izwe lihlangana futhi lihlukana kakhulu, lezi zibonelo ezivelele ziyaqhubeka zinikeza izifundo eziwusizo zokulawula okuwusizo nokuhloniphekile kokuhlukahluka.