Isisekelo Sesivikelo Somthetho - sisekelo

ISivumelwano samaLungelo, sagunyazwa ngo-1791, saqala ukuchaza inkululeko eyisisekelo yesizwe esisha esihlukaniswe kakhulu uhlanga, isigaba, nefilosofi yezombangazwe. Abaferamesi baso abazange bacabange ngempikiswano enkulu yamalungelo omphakathi eyayiyovela emakhulwini eminyaka ngaphambili. Nokho iziqinisekiso zeSimemezelo sokuqala seSimemezelo sokukhuluma, sokuhlangana, nesicelo, kanye nezithembiso, kanye nezithembiso zeZimemezelo zeSijikelezo zeNkaliso zeNkampucuko eziyisisekelo nezentengo elinganayo, ekugcineni zanikeza ukuvuleka okungokomthetho kwamalungelo okhubazekayo. Ngenxa yokuhlelwa kwemibhalo yeSigqi samaLungelo akuzange nanini kukhululwe, abameleli bemithetho, abalweli bemithetho, nabahluleli bezomthetho ukuba bachaze izimiso zaso ezibanzi ukuze bahlanganise abantu ngokomzimba, nezinzwa, izihlakalo zengqondo, nokukhubazeka kwengqondo. Lokhu kwavela ngenkathi samashumi eminyaka yomthetho, ukumiswa kwemithetho yezigidi zezigidi zezigidi ze-Agedion, izikhulu, nezomthetho.

Ukuchaza Kwakuqala Nemingcele Yamalungelo Abantu

Ekhulwini le-19 nasekuqaleni kwele-20, izinkantolo zazingawasebenzisi kakhulu ama-Bill of Rights ukuze zivikele abantu ngokukhubazeka. UMthetho-sisekelo wawuqondwa ngokuyinhloko njengomthetho ovimbela uhulumeni, hhayi njengomthombo wamalungelo okuvuma ukungena noma indawo yokuhlala. Ohulumeni bamazwe nezinhlangano zendawo babelokhu behlukanisa abantu abakhubazekile ezindlini zokunikela izipho, iziphephelo, ne "imithetho" eyayivimbela abantu ukukhubazeka okubonakalayo ezikhubazeni zomphakathi. INkantolo ephakeme e [Foct:0]. Bell[FLT:] [197] [197])] (197]) ngokunedumela umthetho oweqikelelwayo owenqabela abantu ukuhlinzwa okuphoqelelweyo, futhi onganciphiswe yi-oka abantu abavikelwayo, futhi engavikelwanga ngokuvikelwa i-Cellswords Holmer (ist) ngenxa yokuvidulk) engcono kakhulu kwemithetho engokomthetho engokomthetho, njengoba ingazange ivikelele abantu abambalwa ngokuvinjelwe ngokuvikelwa ngokuvikelwa ngokuvinjiwe yiNka kuka-El

I - Grassroot Ikhipha Ukuqamba Kwama - mbele NeSichibiyelo Sokuqala

Ushintsho lokuqala lwenzeka lapho abashisekeli bamalungelo abantu abakhubazekile beqala ukusebenzisa inkululeko yokuVumelana nokukhubazeka ukuze bafune ukubonakala noshintsho. Ngo-1960 nangawo-1970, amaqembu anjenge-rollang Quads esekelwe eBerkeley kanye nenhlangano ezimele ehleliwe yomphakathi, izikhululo, nemihlangano yokunyathelisa eyayidinga ukuvikelwa kwenkulumo nemihlangano. Abalweli abakhubazekile basebenzisa amabhasi avinjelwe izakhiwo zikahulumeni, futhi bahamba eWashington ukuze bamemezele ukuthuthwa nokukhiqiniswa kwezakhiwo. Ngaphandle kwamalungelo okuQala Izelelwa komphakathi, lezi zibhiyo zizakupheliswa ngokushesha. Izinkantolo zaqaphela ukuthi imihlangano yabantu ekhubazekile ivikelekile njenganoma yikuphi ukuziphatha okuvezayo.

Ingxenye 504 yeRehabilitation Act ka 1973 yaba umthetho wokuqala kahulumeni wokwenqabela ukucwaswa kobandlululo oluncishisiwe ezimisweni ezithola izimali zikahulumeni, kodwa kwathatha iminyaka emithathu ukulwa okukhulu ukuze kukhishwe imithetho yayo elawulayo. Ngo- 1977, abashisekeli emadolobheni ayishumi aqhutshwa eHlal’umzimba, Emfundo, namahhovisi e-Welfare. Umsebenzi omde, eSan Francisco, wathatha izinsuku ezingu-25 futhi wasakazwa ezweni lonke. Lezo zibhikishoshoshozo zaphumelela ngenxa yokuvumela abantu ukuba bakhululeke, bahlanganise, futhi banxulumane uhulumeni ngaphandle komthetho owenziwa ngenkululeko nenkululeko yokukhubazeka. Lokhu kuhlobana phakathi kwenkululeko nenkululeko yokukhubazeka kusesisekelo: ukukhubazeka komthetho namuhla kuxhomeke ekulungiseni izinguquko zeze, ukusakazwa kweze ukukhubazeka kwezelelwa kwezezindaba, ukuvikelwa kwemithetho enkantolo.

Isivikelo Esilinganayo Nelungelo Lokukhululeka Ekucwaseni

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane seSiphendulo, esagunyazwa ngo-1868, sandisa iBill of Rights ngokumelene nohulumeni futhi sathembisa ukuthi “sivikeleke ngokulinganayo emithethweni. ” Kulo lonke ikhulu lama-20, iNkantolo Ephakeme yachaza isivikelo esifanayo sokunqanda ukucwaswa kohlanga, ubuzwe, nobulili. Kodwa kulelikhulu leminyaka, ukukhubazeka kwakungaphathwa njengesigaba esivikelekile. Isisekelo se-gantal salokho kuhlola okuphansi kakhulu kokuhlola komthetho wokwahlulela. [1] Izindawo ezivunyelwe ukumisa cishe nawuphi umthetho othinta abantu abakhubazekile uma nje ungekho ubandlululo olungenacala. Lokhu kwaholela ekubeni imingcele esabalele kakhulu emfundweni, emsebenzini, nasemakhaya, nasemakhaya. Izinganeni ezikhubazeni.

Inkathi yoshintsho yafika [[[FLT: 0] i-Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Children (PARC) v. I-Commoneal of Pennsylvania [[FLT]] [[FLT:]] Mills v. i-Fourgate yemfundo yeSithiligi [ [[FLT]]] [72]]. [[FLT]]] [[FLT]] [inkantolo evimbela ukukhubazeka izingane ngenkululeko, iqinisekisa ukuthi abantwana abakhubazekileyobukhaliwe ngezindlela ezilinganayo.] Ngezingakhokhi elungele inqubo engokomthetho yemfundo, kuyilapho ingekho imvume yezemfundo engokomthetho.[FLT][10][FFFF][3]

Abantu BaseMelika Abakhubazekile Bathatha Isinyathelo Sokufezwa Kwamalungelo

AmaMelika anale nkinga yobunzima bango-1990 (ADA) avame ukubizwa ngokuthi "isimemezelo sokukhubazeka" kubantu abakhubazekile. Nakuba kuyisinqumo, hhayi ukulungiswa komthetho-mthetho-sisekelo, i-ADA ibhekisela ngokucacile emazingeni eSigqi samalungelo esizwe. Ekutholeni kwayo, uKhomishano washo ukuthi "abakhubazekileyo abakhubazekile bayizinqanwa kanye nabambalwa abaye babhekana nemingcele kanye nokulinganiselwa, abangaphansi komlando wokungalingani okunenjongo, futhi babekwa esikhundleni sokungabi namandla kwezombangazwe emphakathini wethu." Lolulimi lwasho ukuthi "abakhubazekile abakhubazekile bangamaphutha aziwayo [[FLT: 0] amaCrolene [[FLD:1] [198], okusikisela ukuthi ubandlululo olumelene nobandlululo olune futhi lungabuningi oluncintisana ngokuhlola ngokucupha kweminyanisa." Ngokuhlola ngokukhetha kwenkinga yemithetho engokomthetho enziwayo ekwamukele emalungelweni enzisweni enziwayo.

I-ADA inqabela ukucwaswa emsebenzini (Isihloko I), izinkonzo zomphakathi (isiHloko II), izindawo zomphakathi (Isihloko II), kanye nezokuxhumana (isiHloko se-IV). Kudinga indawo yokuhlala nokulungisa okunengqondo ngaphandle kokuba ibeke inselele engafanele noma ishintshe isimo senkonzo. Izinkantolo ziye zachaza kusukela kulokhu kuhlelwa ngelensths yokulingana komthetho-mogum. Ngokwesibonelo, TINCESSEA v. Lane[FLTY] [FLTY] [2004] [2004], iNkanto ephakeme yakholelwa ukuthi iSihlo seSihlomo II se-ADA esisemthethweni sigunyazwe ukuthi isivikelo sigunyazwe ngenxa yokuthi kugunyazwe amalungelo okuvunyelwayo ukufinyelela ezinkantolo. INkakhulukazi kulelo oluqinile (imvume yokukhokhwaba) enkantolo engokomthetho (imvumeni) engokomthetho wokukhonzweni (imvume).

Ukuvikelwa Kwenqubo Nokuguqulwa Kwezinhlangano Okulindelekile

Inqubo elindelekile ([FLT:][FLT]] [1999]) ichaza iziNguqulo zesihlanu nezeshumi nane zeSiphendulo, ngokumelene nokukhubazeka okubhekene nokumiswa kwenhlangano, ukugcinwa, nokuphathwa ngokungenazibopha. INkantolo Ephakeme Olmstead v. L.[FLT]] [[FLT] [1999] [igunyazwe] [izisekelo] [izilinganiso] [izilinganiso] [izicilo] [izimpepho] [izimpepho]] [zi]), idinga ubufakazi obucacile nobubanzi ngaphambi kokuba umuntu angazinzise isibhedlela esine kakhulu. Kodwa inqubo efanele ivikela isivikelo esingokwezimo eqondweni esiphezulu kakhulu.[Foctivetions][4] Ngokufana neziphakanyiswe yikhona ezibone ukuthi iziphetho eziningi.[i ezisekela kakhulu]

Ukugada Nokuzinquma

I-Bill of Rights igcizelela ukumiswa kwenkululeko yomuntu ngamunye futhi ishukumisele umzabalazo wokuthatha indawo yenqubo yokunakekela ngokulungisa okuxhaswayo ngamalungiselelo. Ekunakekeleni okungokwesiko, inkantolo ikhipha umuntu onenkinga ephawulekayo yelungelo lomuntu siqu, lokwelapha, noma lokunquma ngokwezimali. Lokhu kungalingana nokufa komphakathi. Izinselele zeMithetho-sisekelo ziye zaveza ukuthi ukuncishwa okunjalo okungathandeki kwenqubo edinga ukugcinwa kwecala kuphazamisa inqubo engokomthetho yezokwelapha. I-Creastationstions (ilungelo lokuzenzela izinqumo zomuntu siqu zokunakekela, indawo yokuhlala, nokuphila kwansuku zonke. Nakuba izinkantolo ezimbalwa ziye zabusa phansi komthetho-mthetho we-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho we-logoric, izimiso ze-Galgardianstriarch, Conservation, kunye nezinye izilungiselelo zokuvikela (UGOPA) zigcizelela iziyalezo ezimbalwa nezinquisi ezidiyo ezidiyo ezidingwa abantu abadinga ukugcinwa yizena.

Inkulumo, Ukukhuluma Nolimi Olungalawuleki

ISichibiyelo sokuqala siye sathonya indlela okuxoxwa futhi kwamelelwa ngayo. Abantu abakhubazekile baye balwa ukuze balawule ulimi olusetshenziselwa ukuluchaza − ukunqanda amagama afana "nolimi olugobelwe" noma "lukhutshani" ngokukhetha "abantu abakhubazekile" noma "abakhubazekile" (ngokuncintiswa yimithetho ethandwa yibo siqu nezenhlalo). Nakuba kungekho mthetho owegunyawe ukunquma amagama omphakathi, iSimemezelo sokuqala sivikela ilungelo lemiphakathi ekhubazekayo lokusekela ulimi oluhloniphekayo nokubekela ihlazo ezingenisweni zezindaba nenkulumo yomphakathi. Ngo-2010, uMongameli u-Barack Obama wasayina uMthetho kaRo, owathatha indawo "ukukhubazeka komthetho" ngomthetho womphakathi. Lokho kuguqulwa kweminyaka yemikhaya yesizwe nokuzivo encintiswa yilabo ababengayekile futhi bethiwe yinkulumo elulaza. I-Greast - projectives, kodwa yavuma ngokuziveza ngokulandela umthetho wokuqala, kodwa ngokuziveza ngokuzishoshoshoshoshoshoshoshoshoshoshoshoshoshoyo.

Ukungavumelani, Ukuzonda Inkulumo, Nokusebenzisa I - Internet

Izindawo zomphakathi, lapho manje kuvela khona inkulumo yomphakathi eningi, yenza izinselele ezihlukile kubantu abakhubazekile. Ukutholakala kwe-Web akushiwo ngokuqondile kuyi-Bill of Rights, kodwa isiqinisekiso seSichibiyelo sokuqala sokushintshana ngemibono sisho ukuthi abantu abakhubazekile kumelwe bakwazi ukungena kumapulatifomu ukuze bakhulume kahle. Kusukela ngo 2016, izinkantolo ziye zathi i-ADA isebenza kumawebhusayithi naseminyango yezindawo zokuhlala zomphakathi ezihambayo. Robles v. i-Pizíno's proces proces [[FLC][FLT:] [20] [20], i-G.2010], i-Genetic transtersting inquma ukuthi i-Domino' kumelwe yenze izinhlelo zayo nezingaqondana zabasebenzisi bezimpumpumputheli. Kodwa kulokhu kuveza izimiso ze-A, kodwa kuveza izilinganiso zezentengosi yezindawo zezindawo zezindawo eziphumayo. Kodwa ihlelwe kakhulu kulo ngokomthetho ukuthi ihlelwe ngokuphelele, ihlelwe yileyo imithombo ihlelwe

Ukumemezela Amalungelo Nokufinyelela Ibhola

Ilungelo lokuvota alikho ngokuqondile eSivumelwaneni samaLungelo kodwa livikelwe ngokulungisa okulandelayo (ngonyaka we 15, we-19, we-24, nowama-26) kanye noMnyango ka-Monivile u-Claus. Abantu abakhubazekile baye babhekana nemingcele engokomlando yokuvota, kuhlanganise nezindawo zokuvota ezingafinyeleleki, ukuntula imishini yokuvota efinyelelekayo, nemithetho esusa abantu abangaphansi komthetho ogciniwe. Izimiso ze-Usizo lwaseMelika Zokuvikela i-Ocetton (Hava) zidinga okungenani umshini owodwa ongenekayo wokuvota futhi wasungula i-Vookinology Incopectionation. Nakuba kunjalo ngo-20222, umbiko we-Hulumenio ye-Aurtmentment ofsss procencerrencer (umphal) ngaphansi kwemithensi ye-okanye nenani elikhulu) i-DM. Imvume edinga ukukhothoba i-osethiwe yi-Empey.

Izimpikiswano Zanamuhla Nesiqinisekiso Samalungelo Abantu

Izimpikiswano zamuva ezingokomthetho ziqokomisa ukuthi iBill of Rights isalokhu iyithuluzi eliphilayo ekukhubazekeni. Umqedazwe we-COVOID-19 wabangela ukungezwani okuphambili phakathi kwemithetho evimbela impilo yomphakathi namalungelo okukhubazeka. Ezinye izifundazwe zakhipha izindinganiso zokunakekela ezithi abantu abakhubazekile bakhubazeke kakhulu ngenxa yezikhundla eziphumayo noma imibhede yama - ICU. Izinhlangano zamalungelo aphucuze izinselele zomthetho-mthetho-mthethweni ngaphansi kwe-Ceal Procement Clausdes, ziphikisa ngokuthi imithetho enjalo yahlukanisa ngesisekelo sokukhubazeka. Izinkantolo zazenqaba kakhulu ukuthi izikhulu zikahulumeni zigcwele kakhulu noma azikavuthwa, kodwa impikiswano yadalula ukulinganiselwa okuqhubekayo: uBill of Rights Rights ayiqiniseki ukunakekela kwezokwelapha, futhi ezimweni eziphuthumayo, imfutho encishini ekwayo incishiswa ngeza ngenxa yezimiso zokunga abantu ezithiyo.

Enye indawo yokucindezeleka iwubuhlobo phakathi kokukhubazeka namalungelo okukhipha isisu. Isiqinisekiso seSichibiyelo se 14 sokuzimela somzimba sasiyisisekelo se- Roe v. Wade kanye ne[FLT] Dobbs v. Jackson’s Health Organization [2022] [202], esiqede isivikelo somthetho-mzikomfakela somziko-mfakela wokukhipha isisu. Abameleli bahlukene: ukwesaba ukuthi ukuqeda ukukhulelwa okusekelwe ezifweni ze-Down syndromes noma ezinye izimo kukhubaza ukuphila okukhubazekile; abanye basekela ukuzala njengokubalulekile kwabesifazane, ababhekene nezinga eliphakeme zokuvimbela nokuzala. Ilungelo lokulwa kwemindebezo enziwayo, kodwa linikeza ukunikeza impikiswano ehlukene, ukuvikela kobuningi, ukulingana nezindlela zobuqotho.

Isiphetho

ISigqibi samalungelo, esibhalelwe umphakathi ozimele ongenakho ukuqonda kokukhubazeka njengendaba yamalungelo omphakathi, noma kunjalo siye saba elinye lamathuluzi anamandla kakhulu okulinganisela ukukhula. Ukuchazwa kweSishaya-mthetho, izinkantolo, nabameleli kuye kwahlanganisa ukukhubazeka kwenkululeko yomthetho-sisekelo. ISimemezelo sokuqala sinikeza izwi ezindaweni ezizimele futhi sishisekele ukukhubazeka. ISisekelo soMnyango sokuvikela u-Cela u-Celacle sifuna ukuba abantu abakhubazekile babhekane nokukhubazeka kakhulu. Inqubo yokuvikela ivimbela ukumiswa kwezinhlangano okungalawulwayo. Futhi amaMelika anezingamele ukuvikelwa kwemithetho e-Act. Izimiso zalemithengwane zemithetho yomthetho (ne) i-Actritube ishintshilectives, imisebenzi, ne-teccomplist . Kodwa umsebenzi awuqediselwanga noma isikhulu semvume esingundayo, futhi umele uguquliwe, isikhulu seNka isikhulu seNkakhulu seNkakhulu seNkakhulu seNkamelo.