Izimiso ze-Electoral zibumba ukwakheka kobukhoma bentando yeningi. Phakathi kwazo, izindlela zobushiqela, lapho umvoti onamavoti amaningi ezuza isihlalo esisodwa, kunguwona owandile kakhulu emhlabeni wonke, osetshenziswa emazweni anjengeUnited Kingdom, i-United States, i-India, i-Canada, kanye nezinye eziningi. Nokho lezi zimiso zinemiphumela engekho hlangothi engathi hlangothini konyulwa. Le zimiso zezesayensi yezesayensi zibonisa ukuthi izimiso ezinkulu zesayensi zithinta imingcele yabesifazane nezinhlanga, uhlanga, nesigaba senkolo esisezikoleni. Ukuqonda lobu buhlobo akuyona nje imfundo nje kuphela; kunemiphumela yangempela yemiphumele, ukwethembana, nokubekwa kwezinhlangano zezentando yentando yeningi. Lesi sihloko sihlola indlela ukuhlolwa okukhulu kwemithetho yezesayensi yokhetho nabembukwabesifazane, ukubukeza ubufakazi obunye, nokushintsha kwemithetho yemithetho ehlanganisa nemithetho ehlukeneni.

Ziyini Izimiso Zokuthutha Izimpahla Ezinkulu?

Izinqubo zokhetho ezisetshenziswayo yilezo ezithi kuzo ombangi oyedwa akhethwe kuzo ngokukhetha okukodwa okusekelwe ekutholeni amavoti amaningi. Umehluko ovame kakhulu ungowokuqala-kamuva we-past (FPP), osetshenziswa emazweni angaphezu kuka-40. Ezinye izimiso zezikhulu zesimiso ezihlanganisa ezimbili ezihlukene (ezisetshenziselwa ukukhetha i-Paradise (ezisetshenziselwa iNdlu yabameli) kanye nokuvota okungalinganiyo (okusetshenziselwa i-Australia iNd House of Administs). Kuzo zonke izimo, unyuselwa owedlula emnyango wokuwina [1][2] ubuningi obulula noma ingqikithi ephelele yesihlalo. Lokhu kuphikisana kakhulu nokumelelwa (PR), okubekwa ezimisweni zezindawo eziningi ezihlukene ezingxenyeni zeqembu ngalinye.

Isici esiyinhloko sezimiso eziyinhloko sisifunda esisodwa. Ngenxa yokuthi umuntu oyedwa kuphela owinayo, lezizimiso zidala umncintiswano ophakeme wenani elilinganiselwe lezihlalo. Amaqembu ezombangazwe kumelwe akhethe ngokucophelela abazothatha izikhundla ezikhomba isiphambano esikhulu sabavoti kulesosifunda. Lokhu “kuqondana okuhlangeneyo” ngokuvamile kuvuza abazozuza amaqembu avelele ezakhamuzi, amadoda esizwe noma enkolo abhekwa njengemibhoshongo ephephile. Izindleko zokulahlekelwa isihlalo ziphakeme, ngakho abahlanganyeli abathambekele ekugwemeni izingozi ezicatshangelwayo. Lokhu kukhetha okuqalwayo kokukhetha okuqhubekayo okungaqondile kwabesifazane futhi kuyabangenisa futhi kuwine ihhovisi.

Imishini Ihlobanisa Izimiso Ze - ectoral Nemifanekiso

Ukukhetha Nokugcina Isango

Ezimisweni zezikhulu, amaqembu asebenza njengabagcini bamasango. Balawula abavela nge-collet, futhi izinqumo zabo zokukhetha zibunjwe ngezisusa ze-votor. Ukuhlola ngokukhetha i-FPTP kubonisa ukuthi izigaba zivame ukumisa kuqala ngokulandelana kwe-cuntunsbments(overhelmingsgly bemhlophe nabesilisa) futhi zikhetha abafaka inselele eqophelweni yokuphumelela kwabadlali abadlulile. Lokhu “kuncintinyekisa inzuzo” ekhona. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ngenxa yokuthi isigaba ngasinye esingunxaxhuzulane singelungu elilodwa kuphela, amaqembu angakwazi ukusebenzisa ithikithi elilinganiselwe ukuze aqinisekise ukwahlukahlukana. Esifundeni esinhlobo, iqembu alikwazi ukuthatha indawo ehlukene futhi lilindele ukuba likhethwe, isigaba esisodwa kuphela, noma isigaba esisodwa sohlanga oluphakathi, ngokuvamile, noma isigaba esiphakathi sohlanga olulodwa.

Ukuthutha Imishini Efanelekayo Nempahla Engasetshenziswa

Izimiso zabaphathi bezinkonzo ziyabanqanda futhi abavoti ekusekeleni abavoti abambalwa noma amaqembu amancane anezithakazelo ezimbalwa. Abavoti abakhetha ukungenela umbhalisa eqenjini elingamele bangase besabe ukuthi ukuvota kwabo “kuzothuswa” uma lowo mvoti unethuba elincane lokuwina. Lomphumela ongokwengqondo, owaziwa ngokuthi i - cotation (noma iqhinga), abavoti abavotayo bayahlanganyela ekusekeleni abafunayo ngaphandle kwezindawo eziphambili futhi baqinise ukubusa kwamaqembu amabili amakhulu. Ngenxa yalokho, ngisho nalapho abavoti abambalwa begijima, babhekana nempi ephakeme kakhulu ukuze basekele uvoti. Ukucwaninga [FLT] (2020) kubonisa ukuthi ukuvota okufanelekile kuvamile ezimisweni ze-FPPP, kunezinhlulwa ngokuhlukana.

Ithonya Emfanekisweni Wabesifazane

Ubufakazi Obunamandla: Umfanekiso Womhlaba Wonke

I-inter-Parliamentation Union ihlanganisa i-inter-Parliament Union ngokungaguquki ibonisa ukuthi amazwe asebenzisa izimiso ze-parameter anamaphesenti aphakeme abesifazane ephalamende kunalawo asebenzisa izimiso eziyinhloko. Ngonyaka ka-2023, isilinganiso sembulunga yonke sabesifazane abahlala ezindlini ezizimele noma eziphansi singu- 26,5%. Emazweni asebenzisa i-PR, isilinganiso sidlula kuma-30%; kusuka kumahlelo e-FPPPP, iwela ngezansi kwamashumi amabili%. Ngokwesibonelo, iRwanda (nesimiso esixubile nesilinganiso esinamandla) inabesifazane abangaphezu kuka-60%, kuyilapho i-United Kingdom (FPPPP) inezin 35%, futhi iUnited States (FPPP) ineziphene 28.7% ezindlweni zabamele. Lezi zingezi zingozi zengozi. [FTDD]]

Izithiyo Zezakhiwo Kwabesifazane

Izinqubo eziningana eziqondile zichaza lokhu okungalinganiswa. Okokuqala, izigodi ezikhetha amalungu ahlukene ahlukene: izikhulu zendawo eziseFTP, futhi abesifazane abanamathuba amancane okuba bangaba nenkomfa ngenxa yokuthi baye bakhishwa ngokwesiko kwezombangazwe. Okwesibili, [[[FLT:]] ukugcinwa kwesango [[FLT:] kukhulu kakhulu] ngenxa yesimo esisodwa sobuntwana: izikhulu zendawo ezise FPTP, ngokuvamile zifukamele inzondo enamandla ngokuphathelene yokukhethwa kwabesifazane, ikakhulukazi emakhothafeni angokwezinga. [owesithathu, [[FLT:]] izindleko ezinkulu] [[FFFFOT] noma inzuzo yezinga elikhona, ngaphandle kwesilinganiso sohlobo oluvamile lwezinze phakathi kwesilinganiso esikhona.[3]

Imikhuba Yokuhloba Kweqembu

Ngisho naphakathi kwezinqubo ezinkulu, amanye amaqembu enza kangcono kunabanye abesifazane abathweswa izitho zobufandaphi. Amadili anamandla okulawula izigaba eziqinile, njengamaqembu amaningi ezenhlalo, angafaka inani labesifazane ngokwezinga lesizwe ekuhlolweni kwabo. Nokho, ezimisweni ze-FPTP ezikhethelwe i-FP enobuthelela kakhulu (ngokufana ne-US noma Canada), impumelelo yendawo emelene nomthamo ophezulu. Ku-UK, i-Labour Party isigaba sabesifazane bonke abafushane bamanani ezwelonke iyanda abesifazane abasuka ku 10% kuma-80% ama-LabourMP kungaphezu kuka-2024 ePhalamendel. Kodwa impumelelo yakhona ayifani kakhulu; i-Converative, leyo engakaze yamukeleke kakhulu, isigaba sabesifazane esiphansi kakhulu. [i-FT.][0]

Indima Yesiko Lezombangazwe Nezenhlalo

Izimiso ze-Electoral azisebenzi ngokungenalutho. Isimo sempucuko ngakubesifazane abaholayo sisebenzelana nemithetho elandelwayo. Emiphakathini enobandlululo olujule kakhulu lwezitho zobulili, izimiso eziyinhloko zandisa ubandlululo ngenxa yokuthi abavoti nabakhetha iqembu bathambekele kakhulu ekungabazeni ikhono labesifazane. Ngokungafani, ezimisweni zePR, izigidi zingalula kakhulu “ukulinganisa” uhlu ngokuhlanganisa nabesifazane ngaphandle kokulahlekelwa isihlalo kumncintisani. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ukubonakala kwabesifazane ngokwabo ephalamendeni kuguqula isimilo somphakathi [, izimiso ezinkulu, ngokuveza abesifazane abambalwa ekuqaleni, ngokucothayo okuhle kwenkambo yendima yohlobo nokwakheka.

Ithonya Emfanekisweni Wokuncane

Imiboniso-mbhalo efingqiwe v. umfuziselo we-Substantive

Ukumelelwa kwesizwe, uhlanga, nenkolo encane ngokuvamile kubalwa ngezindlela ezimbili: ukuchaza (noma iphalamende lifana yini nezakhamuzi) kanye nokuthatha izithakazelo ezincane (noma iziphi izithakazelo zedlanzalo ezisezingeni eliphansi). Izimiso ze-Maritarianary zivame ukuthatha indawo ephansi kuzo zombili izilinganiso. Ngenxa yokuthi izigaba ezimbalwa zivame ukusakazeka ngokwezwe, zingase zinganikezi ukugxiliswa okudingekayo ukuze zikhethele umuntu esifundeni esisodwa. Ngisho noma sezihlangene, iqembu elikhulu lingasenakulawula isifunda ngaphandle kokuba imingcele yesigodi idwelwe ngamabomu ukuze kukhishwe izihlalo zezihlalo ezincane (a) umkhuba ngokwawo ongabangela impikiswano.

Ukugxilisa Ingqondo Kwendawo Yonke Nobukhulu Besigodi

Ukuxhumana okuqondile phakathi kwezimiso eziyinhloko kanye neqembu elincane elingaphansi kwe-athonsi kungumphumela wobukhulu be- be-digrigion. Kuhlelo lwezihlalo ngokwesifunda. Esimisweni esikhulu, isifunda ngasinye sikhetha ilungu elilodwa. Ukuze iqembu elincane lithole leso sihlalo, kumelwe lihlanganise inani elikhulu (noma i-majourty) lokhetho. Okudinga ukuhlangana. Ngokungafani, ezimisweni zePR ezinezifunda ezihlukene eziningi, iqembu elincane elimele 20-30% ye-omatilomza elingagcina isihlalo eside njengenani elikhona, kumelwe lihlanganise namalungu ambalwa amaqembu afuna ukuvota. [FLT:], ngokwezinhlandla, ngokwezingalo, i-Salverne,[3] i-PFFFF] emiphakathini ezindaweni ezintathu ezibonisa ngisho nangezintathu, ukuhlanganisa ngisho namanani amanani aphakeme kakhulu. [FT]

Izibonelo Zokubonakaliswa Kobuncane

E-United States, ama-Afrika aseMelika nama-Hispanic ancishisiwe ngokomlando eSishaya - mthetho esihlobene nenani labantu abahlanganyelayo, naphezu kokusungulwa kwezindawo ezinama-minesferini ngaphansi koMthetho wamaVoing Rights. Lezizifunda kodwa zivame ukubekeka inselele ngokomthetho, futhi zingagxilisa amavoti ambalwa ngendlela enciphisa ithonya lawo ezifundeni ezizungezile. E-United Kingdom, ama-MPs angokohlanga ambalwa afinyelela umqulu 10% kwabangu-2024, kodwa lokhu kungaphansi kwe-18% yabantu abangaphansi kwe-Lokigsbards. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ingcosana yezinhlanga eziningi ivela eLabour Party; i-Conservation idla idla idla idla idla idla idlanzana. I-Sulumane, i-Sulumane idla idla i-P, idla i-F.

Izithiyo Zokungathathi Kancane

Imingcele yemigoqo yezindawo ezisemkhankasweni wezezimali zabesifazane abambalwa ibonakalisa leyo ehlela abesifazane: ukugcinwa kweqembu lendawo , okungase kuholele ubandlululo noma nje okukhetha abazothatha isigaba esiphethe; ukulinganiselwa kokuthola imali emalini engokwezimali [[; futhi [[[FLT]] ukucwala] ukucwaswa [[[FLT]] [[FLT]] [[FLT]] okuholela abanye abavotiyo ukuba banqamule umugqa wohlanga kuphela kukhetho oluphansi. Ngaphezu kwalokho, abambalwa babhekana “nenganekwane yokukhetha” [1] Inkolelo yokuthi umjoli weqembu elincane alikwazi ukuwina indawo lapho iningi lingaveli kulelo, ngisho nalapho kusikisela okuthile. Le nganekwane inamandla kakhulu ezimisweni ezinkulu ngenxa yesilinganiso esincane sesimiso sehhhhhhhhhn, ingabekwa ngaphandle kwesigaba esivamile.

Ukuhlola Okuqhathanisayo: Ama - joritharian v. Proportigal System

Indikimba ekhulayo yomsebenzi wokuhlola iqhathanisa imiphumela yezimiso zezemali ezihlukahlukene ezisebenzisa izibalo. Okunye okungaguquguquki kuthola ukuthi umphumela wohlobo lwesimiso sokhetho lomfanekiso wabesifazane mkhulu kunomphumela weminye imicikilisho eminingi, njengomphumela wezezomnotho, inkolo, noma indawo. Izimiso ezimbalwa, umphumela uqine ngokulingana. Kunyaka wezifundo ezingu-20, uFtin-Rtberger noRitberger ([20 FLT:3]]], uthola ukuthi izinhlelo ezincane zezimiso ze-R zikhula ngokulingana nesilinganiso sika-FPP-10.

Izimiso zezenqubo zobuProtigayo zisiza futhi ekukhetheni abesifazane namaqembu amancane ahlukene kakhulu, ngokuvamile anamachibi ahlukene kakhulu. Ezimisweni eziphethe amaqembu amancane, amaqembu amancane akhanywa ngenxa yokuthi abavoti bayawashiya ngenxa yokwesaba ukudlala amavoti. Umphumela uba isigaba esihluka-mbili lapho amaqembu avelele ethanda ukungahlukani kakhulu, ngokwengxenye ngenxa yokuzihlukanisa kwawo siqu futhi ngokwengxenye ngenxa yesidingo sokudlulisela isikhalo sokukhalo, ngokuvamile esingokwesiko, i-vota, i-voti. Ngakho, isimiso esikhulu sokuvota [[FLT: 0] sithanda ukuhlukana kwe-homogee engekho inguquko eyisisekelo [Focter.Foct:]

Izinguquko Zokuthuthukisa Umfuziselo

Aqaphela ukuntuleka kwezimiso eziyinhloko, amazwe amaningi aye asungula izinguquko. Lezi zingahlanganiswa ngezigaba ezintathu: ushintsho lwesimiso sokhetho, izilinganiso zomgomo, nezinguquko zangaphakathi.

Ushintsho Lwesimiso Sezinto Eziphilayo

Inguquko eqondile isuka ekutheni i-kapitalium ephelele iqhubekela e-partial (MMP) exubene nesimiso se-octive. Izimiso ezixubile, ezisetshenziswa eJalimane, eNew Zealand, nase Scotland (okhethweni lwesifunda), zihlanganisa izigodi ezinezingxenye eyodwa ezihlohlwayo ukuze kuqinisekiswe ukuthi zilingana. Ukuhlola kubonisa ukuthi ukusungula i-MMP [[FLP:0] [imidwelizo] kukhuphukisa amaphuzu abesifazane ngo-510 , futhi kuthuthukisa ukumelelwa kwezihlalo ezimbalwa lapho zisetshenziswa ekuletheni izinhlobonhlobo. Ukushintsha kwe-FPPP kusuka ku-MMP ku-1993 kuholele ukwanda okuphawulekayo kwabesifazane kusukela ku-1993 kuya ku-1999, futhi ku-2020 ku-20. Ngokufanayo, i-Romediod Scediod S, i-Ediod Scedion, kusuka kulezo ezingu 50%, kulezo zemifamandezinye i-Enyusi ye-Enyuke kakhulu, kusuka

Imicaphulo Neziqiwu Ezigciniwe

Ngisho naphakathi kwe-PPTP, iziqu zingaphumelela. I-Gender quoties orgited divisions noma igalelo leqembu lokuzithandela ("manday" ukwenziwa kwenani elithile labesifazane. Kuzimiso ze-FPTP, izigaba ezinjalo kunzima ukuzisebenzisa ngoba amaqembu angakwazi ukubeka abesifazane phezulu ohlwini; kumelwe aqinisekise ukuthi abesifazane bakhethiwe ezindaweni ezithanda ukuzuza. Nokho, i-UK Labour Party bonke abesifazane abafushane baye baphumelela. Izihlalo ezigciniwe (njengobasetshenziswa eNdiya eSteprinderdades naseShemily Collegames, futhi ePakistan baqinisela abesifazane kanye nabanga-Muslim) isiqinisekiso esithe ngqo. I-pane i-UK [FTP]

Ukuncishiswa Kwezindawo Nokuncishiswa Kwazo

Ezimisweni eziningi eziyinhloko, ukudwetshwa kwemingcele yesigodi kunemiphumela ejulile ekumeleni kwabambalwa. Gerrymandering .Imida yokunciphisa amandla okuvota amancane . iye yasetshenziswa amakhulu eminyaka. IUS Voting Rights Act idinga amagunya okwakha izifunda ezinhlalo eziningi lapho kungenzeka khona ukuvimbela ukunqanda ukuhlaziywa, okuholela ekufuzeni a-Afrikaan America nase-Hispanic. Nokho, lendlela ifuna abagxeki abaphikisana nayo bafake idlali elincane ivoti futhi inciphise ithonya labo ezifundeni ezizungezileni. Enye into engenziwa i- ukusetshenziswa kwezimemo ezithi ezihambela i-redgiontis futhi ifuna ukuba izifunda zidonswe ukuze zihloselwe isithakazelo esithakazelweni. Ku-U, i-Bernary Compliningssss, kodwa icabangela ukuncilm, isigaba esincane, uma zinganwe yikhona, uma i-od izingasakaze, uma ikhona.

Iqembu Langaphakathi Libusa Ngentando Yeningi

Ekugcineni, amaqembu ngokwawo angathatha izinguquko zangaphakathi ukuze andise ukwahlukahluka kwezimiso ezinkulu. Lezi zihlanganisa ukukhetha okungokwenhlalo okunesilinganiso okuphoqelela izinqubo zokukhetha ezihlukene, ukuqeqeshelwa izinhlobonhlobo zamakomiti okukhetha, nokusekela ngokuxhasa abesifazane kanye nabasanda kuqala. Ngokwesibonelo, i-Australian Labor Party, isebenzisa isimiso sokuhlukanisa isigaba esinesigaba sabesifazane ezihlalweni ezivulekayo, okuholela ekumeleni okuphakeme kakhulu kweNdlulekiswa kwabesifazane naphezu kokusetshenziswa kwenqubo yokuvota ekhethekile (isimiso esikhulu esiyinhloko se-octives). [[FLT.FLT:2] I-Intergial Intection Discovective[FOct:3]

Isiphetho

Izimiso zokhetho azinazo izisekelo ezingakhethi zentando yeningi; zihlela ngokulandelana abakhethwayo nabahlala bekhishwa. Ubufakazi busobala ukuthi izindlela zokuqala ze-parele-stesteste futhi ezithatha zonke ezifanayo ziveza amapalamende angameleli kakhulu abesifazane namaqembu amancane kunawo wonke awenzayo. Izimiso zihlanganisa ukugcinwa kwesango ngokuhleleka, ukuvota okuhleliwe ngenani, ngokuncintisana, nangenzuzo yokuhamba kwezifunda zesigaba esisodwa. Nakuba inguquko enjengezindawo ezihlukene, i-redifireating, futhi izinguquko zangaphakathi zinganciphisa eminye yalemiphumela, futhi inguquko ethembekile yalemiphumele zindlela, indlela ethembekile yokuzimela ngokuhlukanisa inguquko engoko. Abakhi besimiso sokukhetha inguquko esingoko ukuhlukahlukanisa. Ngakho, kufanele bahlole imingcele yemithetho yemithetho yezokwentando yentando yemvelo ngaphansi kwemithetho esetshenziswa yimithetho esetshenziswa yizakhamuzi ezinhlanganise izinhlangano ezihlanganisayo ngempela kithi esicebile.