Ukuthunyelelwa Kwemfundiso Yokuvumelana

I-Incorporation Doctrine iyisisekelo somthetho-sisekelo waseMelika, ichaza ukuhlobana phakathi kweSiphakamiso samalungelo abantu nohulumeni bombuso. Lapho iSiphakamiso samaLungelo sigunyazwa ngo-1791, sasebenza kuhulumeni kahulumeni, sishiya amazwe ekhululekile ukumisa imithetho yawo siqu ngenkulumo, inqubo yobugebengu, namanye amalungelo ayisisekelo. Lelilungiselelo lashintsha ngokuphawulekayo ngemva kokwamukelwa kweSiphendulo samalungelo esizwe ngo-1868. Phakathi nekhulu leminyaka elilandelayo, iNkantolo Ephakeme yachaza i-'Accomplicement's Procement's's Claus's's Procements" ukuba “incikelele kakhulu yeMicioctives of Rights, yenza lezo sivikelo siqiniswe kuhulumeni bendawo yombuso neyomhlaba. Namuhla, imfundiso iqinisekisa ukuthi isakhamuzi saseCalifornia sinezinganiso ezifanayo kulowo owembukwayo eNew York, njengoba ithola i-Texadmistries.

Imibono emibili encintisanayo iye yaguqula ukuziphendukela kwemvelo. igomela ngokuthi iSichibiyelo seshumi nane sithatha wonke umthetho wamaLungelo. , ukusondela eNkantolo eyamukelwayo ngempela, ihlanganisa ucezu lwelungelo, ngokwengxenye, mayelana, ukuhlolwa komuntu ngamunye ngokumelene nombono wokuthi “ilungelo lisekelwe eqhingani laseMelika lobulungisa.” Umphumela uyinhlahloko olunamandla, ngezinye izikhathi, okungalinganiyo, isidumbu somthetho esiqhubeka sikhula. Ukuqonda indlela i-Incoration Doctrinotion esebenza ngayo, futhi indlela ehlangana ngayo nomthetho womthetho, mayelana nelungelo eligcwele eUnited States.

Imvelaphi Yemfundiso Yokuvumelana

Inqubo KaClaus Efanele YeSichibiyelo Seshumi Nane

Ngo-1868, Ingxenye 1 yeSichibiyelo se-14th inikeza ukuthi “[uHulumeni] uzokwenza noma uphoqelela noma yimuphi umthetho ozovimbela amalungelo noma ukugoma kwezakhamuzi zase-United States; futhi iZwe ngeke liphuce noma imuphi umuntu ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho; noma uphike noma ubani ophakathi kwegunya lakhe isivikelo esilinganayo semithetho.” [[FLT: 0] [i-Privigeges noma i-Immunities Clausde[[FLM:] [[FLT:] [1]] ihloselwe ekuqaleni yizigebegi zomthetho ezimele ukuvikela amalungelo ayinhloko ezigqila nazo zonke izakhamuzi ekuphazaleni kwayo. Kodwa kumthetho [FLB] [FON] [5] [irglact [18], [18], iNkakhulu leNkakhulu leNkakhulu], ifunda lelo lungelo lokubusa, elilinganiselwe kakhulu, ukuthi ibeka amalungelo ayo kuphela, noma iMithelela kuhulumeni, noma kuhulumeni walo, i-National

Inqubo Efanele

Ngemva kwesinqumo i - Suaughter i-ligit iphendukele ku-[[FLT:] I-Duetioty Procesme Claus njengenye indlela. INkantolo yaqala ukusikisela ukuhlanganiswa ekupheleni kwekhulu leshumi elineshumi elineshumi elinethoba, kodwa yaze yathatha i-Promon, kodwa yaze yanquma ukuthi i-[[FLT] [FLT]] Glow v. [[FLT][FLT] [25] [25] imfundiso yanamuhla yathatha isimo. [[FLT:] Glow[FLD] [[FLT:], ngaphandle kokunquma ngokugcwele ukuthi isivikelo senkululeko yokukhuluma ngokukhululekile isebenza ngezimo ze-Celassion. Lokho okuvulwe yi-Clausdiak) Emashumi eminyaka alandelayo, ikhipha imvume yokuhlola imvume yokusebenzisa iNkalelo ye-onke imvume ye-onke, noma imvume yokukhetha ukuthi “ir.

Amacala Ayinhloko Enkantolo

Amalungelo Okuqala ESichibiyelo

  • Gitlow v. New York (1925): [[FLT Gitlow] uBenjamin Gitlow waboshwa ngaphansi komthetho wesiphithiphithi sobugebengu waseNew York wokwabelana amapheshana esimiso sokusebenzela umphakathi. INkantolo yaphetha ukuthi isiqinisekiso seSiphendulo Sokuqala sokukhuluma ngokukhululekile sisebenza kohulumeni nge-Active Programme Claus, nakuba saqinisekisa ukuqiniseka kwakhe ngoba inkulumo yaveza “ingozi ekhona.” Icala laphawula isiqalo sokufakwa kweSiphendukuQululo Sokuqala.
  • Cantwell v. Connecticut (1940): I-Free Execreence Claus ezweni, ivikela ukunxusa kwenkolo.
  • Everson v. Board of Education (1947): Ihlanganise u-Claus wokwakhiwa, usebenzisela ukuhlukaniswa kwesonto nombuso ezifundeni zendawo.

Amalungelo Obugebengu

  • Mapp v.O.1961]: Doltree Map walahlwa ngenxa yobufakazi obabanjwa phakathi nokuphenywa okungekho emthethweni. INkantolo yathi umthetho weSine wokususa iSichibiyelo (--*) uvimbela ukusetshenziswa kobufakazi obuthola ngokungemthetho ezinkantolo zikahulumeni. Lesi sinqumo saguqula inqubo yobugebengu yamazwe ngokufuna amaphoyisa ukuthola imvume noma ukwanelisa imvume eqashelwa ngaphandle kwemithetho.
  • Gideon v. Wainwright (1963):[[FLT] Clarence Gideon, ummangalelwa ompofu eFlorida, waphikwa ummeli. INkantolo yaphetha ngokuthi iSiphazamiso seSithandathu sokunikeza iseluleko sibalulekile futhi sisebenza ekumangalelweni kwecala kwangaphambili, ukudlula u-Brady v. Brady (192). EUnited States manje kumelwe inikeze ummeli kunoma yimuphi ummangaleli onecala elingathi sína.
  • Mira v. Arizona (1966): [[FLT:] uErneto Miranda walahlwa ngenxa yokuvuma izono akuthola ngaphandle kokwaziswa ngamalungelo akhe. INkantolo yathi ilungelo leSichibiyelo sesihlanu ngokumelene nokuzilahla lidinga amaphoyisa ukuba aphikise “izixwayiso zeMira” ngaphambi kokuphenywa kwelungelo lokuthola ilungelo. Isinqumo manje sibopha umbuso nemithetho yendawo.
  • Duncan v. Louisiana (1968): ISichibiyelo sesithupha safaka imvume yokuqulwa kwecala lejaji emacala amakhulu obugebengu. INkantolo yasebenzisa “ukulunga okungokomsuka” indinganiso, iphawula ukuthi ukuqulwa kwecala lisekelwe ngokujulile kujusi eliyi-Anglon-Melika.

Okwesibili, Eyesihlanu Neyesishiyagalombili

  • McDonald v. City of Chicago (2010): Inkantolo yahlanganisa iSichibiyelo sesibili sokugcina nokuphatha izikhali zokuzinqanda, ukuvimbela isibhamu seChicago. Lesisinqumo senza kwacaca ukuthi kwesokudla siqashelwe ku- i-Grayearty of Columbia v. Heller[ (2008) sisebenza embusweni nasembusweni wezwe.
  • Benton v. Maryland (11969): yahlanganisa isivikelo seSichibiyelo sesihlanu engozini ephindwe kabili.
  • Robinson v. California (1962): yahlanganisa unqabela kweSichibiyelo seNguquko sesishiyagalombili ekunqabeni isijeziso sonya nesingavamile, isisebenzisela emithethweni yesizwe yokusetshenziswa kwezidakamizwa.

Akuwona wonke amalungelo ahlanganisiwe. ISichibiyelo sesithathu (ingqungquthela yamasosha), imfuneko enkulu yeSichibiyelo sesihlanu ebekwa icala abahluleli ( Hurtado v. California, 1884), kanye nokuqulwa kwecala leSichibiyelo seSembeti ezinkantolo zezwe. Indlela yokungena ekhetha yeNkantolo ingaphandle yecala yesikhathi esizayo ihlanganise i-partment uma ilungelo lithathwa njengebalulekile esikweni esingokomthetho sesizwe.

Ukuhlanganyela Nomthetho Wezempi

I-Incorporation Doctrine imisa i- componitional elungelweni ngalinye. Amazwe awakwazi ukuthatha indawo ngaphansi kwalelo gumbi, kodwa anganikeza isivikelo esikhulu. Umthetho we-Federal uqhubekela phambili: UMkhandlu ungandisa amalungelo angaphezulu komthetho-sisekelo, futhi ungadala amakhambi omthetho agcwalisa izikhala ezishiyekile ezishiyekile zemfundiso. Ngaphezu kwalokho, uMkhandlu unamandla ngaphansi kweSiphakamiso 5 seSiphakamiso se - 145 sokunikeza “impoqo, ngamalungiselelo afanelekile, alesi sihloko." Le gunya livumela ukuba kudluliswe imithetho evimbela, ikhambi, noma ukuvinjelwa kwemithetho encithamele amalungelo, ngisho noma ukufinyelela leyo mithetho engekhona ngokwayo.

Amandla Aphoqelelwayo Nendawo Yokuhlanganisa

Ku Katzenbach v. Morgan (1966), iNkantolo yasekela ukuvinjelwa kwamalungelo abantu ukufunda nokubhala kwe-Voting Rights Act ye-Puerto Rican Count e-New York, ngisho noma iNkantolo ngaphambili yayikholelwa ukuthi ukuhlola kokufunda nokubhala akungqubuzani nemithetho engokomthetho elawulayo. Lokhu kufunda okubanzi kwenza ukuba imithetho yemithetho yesizwe ikwazi ukunezela amalungelo. Nokho, izinqumo ezinjengalezo zeSigaba 5 [FLT] zagunyaza iBoFlene.[3] [197] Imithetho encishicinelisayo] Imithetho elawula ukuvuselelwa kwemithetho engokomthetho.

Indlela Imithetho Yezempi Encike Ngayo Ekuziphatheni

Imithetho eminingi yamalungelo esizwe engokonyaka incike ngokungaqondile eMthethweni weSikhathi wamalungelo abantu. ICivil Rights Act ka-1944, ngokwesibonelo, isebenzisa amandla eSishaya-mthetho sezentengiselwano kanye namandla eSiphakamiso se 145 seSiphakamiso sokulawula imingcele ukuze inqabe ukucwaswa kwezindawo zomphakathi zokuhlala, umsebenzi, nezinhlelo ezigunyazwelwa i-gunye. Kodwa ngaphandle kokufaka i-antiontiontiontion, amazwe angavumela ukucwaswa kohlanga ngokungenasijeziso. [FOct:3] kanye ne-[FOct: [FOct:] iNT] iSisekelo seSikhungo seSikhungo seNguqulo se-Mnyango se-Genetic Classide (ngeNguqulo-D5]) sinikeza isisekelo sombuso wezwezwe lonke. Ngokufanayo, [FLT.2:2] azinciphi izimfuneko ezithene kakhulu zezimfuneko zesizwe.[Fogqeqeqentine] kodwa

Imithetho Yamalungelo Abantu Esekela Amalungelo

Isinqumo Samalungelo Abantu Sango - 1964

Isihloko II se-Civil Rights Act sivimbela ukucwaswa kobandlululo olusekelwe ngokohlanga, ibala, inkolo, noma izwe ezindaweni zomphakathi (izindawo zokuhlala, izitolo zokudlela, imidlalo yaseshashalazini). Isihloko VII sivimbela ukucwaswa kwemisebenzi ngezizathu ezifanayo, kanye nobulili. UMthetho wasekelwa yiNkantolo Ephakeme [Fluttel:0] [i-United States [1964] [[64]) [[FL:2]] i-Katzenbach v v. McClinder[[FLT:] [1964] ngaphansi kwe-ocet) kwezenterces zomthetho, kodwa ukumiswa kwayo kwaqhutshwa yisithembiso se-145 yesivikelo esilinganayo kanye nesezingenisiwe ezimithethwe ngomthetho owe-Active. I-Active i-Activement esebenzayo ngokunikeza noma yisiphi i-Arsethi ye-Grectory, engekhoced.

Ukugunyaza Isinqumo Samalungelo Abantu Sango - 1965

IVoing Rights Act (VRA) mhlawumbe iwumthetho onamandla kakhulu kahulumeni osebenza namalungelo omthetho-sisekelo. Ingxenye 2 yeVRA inqabela noma yimuphi umkhuba wokuvota ophumela ekucwatshweni ngesisekelo sohlanga noma ibala, noma ubulungu beqembu elincane lolimi. I-Act ngokukhethekile yezenzo ezihlolwayo ezibekwe ezindaweni eziye zasetshenziselwa amashumi eminyaka ukususa amaMelika ase-Afrika, njengokuhlola ukufunda nokubhala, ukukhokha intela, kanye nezimfuneko zokubhalisa ezinzima. IVRA yamiswa ngaphansi kweSiphendumiso seshumi elinesihlanu (okuvimbela ukucwasana ngokohlanga ngovota) nesigaba 5 seSiphendulo se-Gawula. ISiphaka samashumi amane eminyaka seSivumelo siqinisekisa ukuthi iRoffractive (effectives) evotiwe yimithetho engokomthetho engokomthetho kahulumeni) evimbela ukuvinjelwe i-Vlad Clauss. [[10] kodwa i-uptionsssssssner, i-unicedvolution, ingayinyusa i-od

Abantu BaseMelika Abakhubazekile (ADA) Ngo - 1990

I-ADA inqabela ukucwaswa kwabantu abakhubazekile emsebenzini, ezindaweni zomphakathi, ezethutho, kanye nezokuxhumana. Isihloko II se-ADA sisebenza ngokukhethekile kuhulumeni nasemisebenzini kahulumeni wendawo, izinhlelo, nemisebenzi. Lokhu kuncika emandleni okulawula kweSichibiyelo seshumi nane seSichibiyelo samandla kubantu abakhubazekile eYunivesithi yase-Alabama-Alabamav. IGarrett[[FLT] [200] [200], lapho iNkanto ekholelwa khona ukuthi izisebenzi zingenakukhokha isamba ngaphansi kweSihloko se-AAAAA ngenxa yokuthi uHulumelo alukho ubandlululo olukhubazekayo oluyindiwe yizimpi. Nokho, isikhulu se-I sifaka izicelo zokungena enkantolo kanye nezinye izinkonzo zomphakathi ezisekuyo, ikakhulukazi lapho izikhulu zika-Claydrune (ithssss) ezisemswong) ezibophelele ze-Adrule, kodwa i-Adsdust, idinga ukuvinywe ngokuhlelwa kwemiya

Isihloko IX Seziphendulo Zemfundo Ngo - 1972

Isihloko i-IX inqabela ukucwaswa okusekelwe ebulilini kunoma yisiphi isimiso semfundo uthola usizo lwezimali lukahulumeni. Nakuba isisekelo sakuqala somthetho-sisekelo sokucwasa ngokobulili sisekelwe kuyi-Ecult Protection Claus esemthethweni esetshenziswa ezindaweni ngeSichibiyelweni se-145, iNkantolo Ephakeme ayizange ihlanganise ngokugcwele ukuhlolwa kwezimiso ezisekelwe ebulilini kuze kube United States v. Virginia [19696]. [I-I-IX] inikeza inqubo yomthetho enikeza ikhambiza edlula lokho okufunwa nguMthetho-Sivumekodwa (i-Siphetho se-Genethi). Ngokufuna izikole zokuhlasela ngobulili nokuhlasela. I-Incorcoration Doctrisonnerments Prigieveyss (ignomes) ngaphansi kwe-pread i-tivession.

Isiphetho

I-Incorporation Doctrine isaphila, i-involution ehlanganisa izinga lokuqala likahulumeni elilinganayo leSigqi Samalungelo kanye nezicelo zesimanje zesivikelo esifanayo kuzo zonke izifundazwe. Ngokukhetha, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yasebenzisa eziningi (kodwa) kodwa akuyona yonke iMiba Yamalungelo kahulumeni nakohulumeni bendawo, incike eziqinisekisweni ezifanele nesivikelo esilinganayo zeSiphendulo Seziphekelele. Umthetho we-Frederal usebenzelana nale sisekelo somthetho-sisekelo ngezindlela eziningana: ungacacisa izinga lamalungelo afakiweyo, ikhele amakhambiza adlulele ngalé kwezinqululo zomthetho, futhi igunyaze ukuvimbela ukuvinjwa kwemithetho. Imithetho yemithetho yemithetho ye-Rovin Act, i-ADA, ne-I-X incikelwe nge-partment ngezindawo ezintsha ezibekweyo.

Uma ubheka phambili, lemfundiso ingase ibhekane nezinselele ezintsha. Ukufakwa kweSichibiyelo Sesibini kusalungiswa, ikakhulukazi ngokuphathelene namasu okukhipha imvume (] iNew York State Rifle & Pistol Association v. Bruen, 2022]). Izivumelwano ezingafakiweyo ```````ijaji labrust', ukuqulwa kwejaji, ukuqulwa kwejaji lomphakathi,'ukuqulwa kwejaji,'ijaji-kathane-kathi,'kungaphinde kuphinde kuqaliswe'nwe uma iNkanto ithola iyisisekelo sobulungisa banamuhla eMelika. Okwamanje, izimpikiswano ziyaqhubeka ngesilinganiso samandla eSigabeni sesiHlo 5 nesilinganiso imithetho yombuso engabeka izibophotho eziselweni ngaphandle kokusetshenziswa kwezimiso zomthetho wombuso wombuso. Ukuqonda ukuqulwa kwemithetho ye-Corporation Relitiontionstion ayiyona nje indaba yomlando kodwa ingundayo embubhisiyo.