Emithethweni engokomthetho, ubufakazi buyindawo okuqashelwa kuyo amacala awenziwe futhi anqunywe. Kungakhathaliseki ukuthi kusempikiswaneni phakathi kwamaqembu azimele noma ukuquliswa kwecala yi-gano, ukuqoqwa, ukuhlaziywa, nokunikezwa kobufakazi kufakazela umphumela. Ukuqonda ukuthi ubufakazi buqoqwe futhi busetshenziswe kanjani ezicabeni zomphakathi. Lesi sihloko sinikeza ukucushwa kwanoma ubani oweqa amacala angokomthetho futhi anikeze ubufakazi kochwepheshe bomthetho nomphakathi. Imithetho ebusayo iklanyelwe ukuqinisekisa ukuthi iqiniso lilungile, lithembekile, futhi liphishekela iqiniso, kodwa lihlukile ngokuphawulekayo kuye ngohlobo lwecala. Lesi sihloko sinikeza ukucubunga ngokubanzi, izindlela ezisetshenziswa ekulingeniseni, izindinganiso zomthetho nomphakathi, futhi izinselele eziphakamayo kokubili ezimongweni zobugebengu.

Izinhlobo Zobufakazi

Ubufakazi buhlelwe kabanzi ezigabani eziningana, ngasinye esinezici nemithetho ehlukile yokubona ukuthi sikhona.

Ubufakazi Obuwubufakazi

Ubufakazi obuqanjiwe buhlanganisa izinkulumo ezenziwa ofakazi abafungelwe, kungaba enkantolo noma ngezindawo. Kuhlanganisa ubufakazi obuqondile ngalokho ufakazi ngokwakhe akuqaphela, kanye nemibono ehlakaniphile. Ukubonelela, inkumbulo, nobandlululo okungase kube yizici ezibucayi abahluleli nabasizi bejaji abazisebenzisayo lapho behlola ubufakazi obufakazelayo.

Ubufakazi Obulotshiwe

Ubufakazi obubhaliwe buhlanganisa noma yikuphi ukwaziswa okubhaliwe noma okuqoshiwe, njengezivumelwano, ama-imeyili, izincwadi, amarekhodi ezokwelapha, amasheya ebhizinisi, nezincwadi zikahulumeni. Ukuze amabhukwana abhalwe kahle, kumelwe aqikelelwe, ngokubonisa ukuthi yilokho umsekeli athi yikho. Umthetho ongcono kakhulu (Umthetho we-Federal of Evidence 1002) ufuna ukubhalwa noma ukuqoshwa kombhalo wokuqala ngaphandle kokuba kusetshenziswe okuhlukile.

Ubufakazi Obungokoqobo

Ubufakazi obuphathekayo (noma obungokoqobo) bunezinto ezingokoqobo ezifeza indima eqondile ezimweni ezikhona kumagazini, (njengesibonelo, isikhali, uthatho lwezingubo, ukuphakamisa iminwe, noma umkhiqizo okuthiwa ubangele ukulimala. Ubufakazi obungokomzimba buvame ukuba namandla ngoba bungafakwa ekuhlolweni kwesayensi futhi ngokuvamile bubhekwa njengomgomo.

Ubufakazi Obubonisayo

Ubufakazi obubonisayo buyizinto ezingokomfanekiso, njengemidwebo, amabalazwe, amashadi, izifanekiso, noma imiboniso yamacomputer, ezisetshenziselwa ukusiza umuntu othatha izinto ezincane ukuba aqonde obunye ubufakazi.

Ubufakazi Bezinombolo

Ubufakazi bemishini buhlanganisa ukwaziswa okuvela kuma - computer, ama-cell phone, ama-ash, amafu, ama-media, ama-computer nezinye izinto zobuchwepheshe. Umsindo wawo, i-CMY kanye nezinhlobonhlobo kudala izinselele eziyingqayizivele zokuqoqa nokulondoloza. Izinkantolo zincike kakhulu kuma - akhawunsi emishini ukuze zibuye zithole amafayela acinyiweyo, imikhondo yokuxhumana, kanye nokuqinisekisa ukuthi i-metadata ikhona.

Ubufakazi Obubalulekile

Ubufakazi obuyindinganiso abubufakazeli ngokuqondile kodwa buvumela umuntu othatha iqiniso ukuba aqonde leloqiniso ezimweni ezizungezile. Ngokwesibonelo, ukuthola iminwe yomuntu esigcawini sobugebengu kungase kungafakazeli ukuthi wenze lobugebengu, kodwa bungasetshenziswa kanye nobunye ubufakazi bokuveza ukuthi ungubani. Ubufakazi obuyindida buvunyelwe kokubili ezicaleni zombango nobugebengu futhi bungasekela ukuqiniseka.

Ubufakazi Obungokwesayensi Nobudala

Ubufakazi obungokwesayensi buhlanganisa ukuhlaziywa kwe-DNA, ukuhlaziywa komchamo wegazi, imibiko yezesayensi yobuthi, kanye nokwakhiwa kabusha kwengozi. Ukungaqiniseki kobufakazi obungokwesayensi ezinkantolo zikahulumeni e-U.S. kulawulwa i-Daubert[ indinganiso (Umthetho we-Federal of Evidence 702], edinga inkantolo ukuba isebenze njengomgcini wesango, iqinisekisa ukuthi ubufakazi obungochwepheshe busekelwe ezindleleni nasezimisweni ezithembekile. Izinkantolo eziningi zesifundazwe zilandela indlela [[FLT:]] FLT] [[FLT:]]]] noma indlela ehlukile.

Ukuqoqa Ubufakazi Emacaleni Ezelelesi

Inqubo yokuqoqa ubufakazi ekuhlolweni kobugebengu ngokuyinhloko iwumthwalo wemfanelo wezinhlangano eziqapha umthetho, kuhlanganise namaphoyisa, iFBI, iDEA nezinye izinhlangano zikahulumeni nombuso. Izindlela ezisetshenziswayo zingaphansi kwemingcele eqinile yomthetho-sisekelo − ikakhulukazi isivikelo seSichibiyelo Sesine ekuhlolweni okungacabangeli nokuquleka.

Ukucwaninga Nokusabela Kokuqala

Lapho ubugebengu buke babikwa, izikhulu zifika endaweni, zivikele indawo, futhi ziqale ukuqagela kokuqala. Zixoxa nezisulu nofakazi, zibhale lesimo ngezithombe nangemidwebo, futhi ziqoqe ubufakazi obushaqisayo ngaphambi kokuba buwohloke. Ukusabela kokuqala kubeka isisekelo salo lonke icala, futhi ngalesi sigaba kungahlehlisa ubufakazi kamuva.

Ukufuna Nokusimama

Ukugcinwa komthetho ngokuvamile kumelwe kuthole isiqinisekiso sokufuna esisekelwe entweni okungenzeka ibangele ukuphenya ekhaya lomuntu, imoto, noma kwenye indawo yangasese. Imvume kumele ichaze ngokukhethekile indawo okumelwe kuphenywe kuyo futhi kuthathwe izinto. Okuhlukile kuhlanganisa imvume, izimo ezicatshangelwe (umz., ukujaha noma ukuqothulwa kobufakazi okuseduze), umbono ocacile, ukuphenya isenzakalo sokuboshwa, nokukhishwa kwemoto. Ubufakazi obutholakele ngokwephula iSichibiyelo sesine bungakhishwa ngaphansi komthetho owembulwayo, nakuba ngaphandle komthetho wokholo olulungile.

Ukubuzwa Namazwi

Ukuxoshwa kwabasolwayo, abahlolwayo, abahlaliswayo noma abagwegwelwayo, kumelwe bavumelane neSichibiyelo Sesihlanu nesesithupha. I-cononic Miranda ixwayisa ngokuthula − ilungelo lokungakhululeki nelungelo lommeli ("ilungelo lokufuna ukuphenywa) ngaphambi kokuphenywa kwelungelo lokuthola ilungelo. Izinkulumo ezenziwa ngokunganaki, ngokuphoqelelwa noma ngezindlela ezingafanele, azinakwenzeka. Ukuphenywa kwamacala asebuthweni lenkantolo kuthatha indawo enkulu lapho kuye kwaba khona ukuvuma okungamangalelwa, ngakho izifunda eziningi zidinga ukuqoshwa kwazo zonke izicelo zemishini.

Ukuhlaziya Okungokwesayensi

Ubufakazi obungokoqobo obuqoqwe emibukisweni yobugebengu buthunyelwa ezindaweni zokucwaninga ubugebengu ukuze kuhlolwe. Izifundo ezivamile ze-fonnensic zihlanganisa i-DNAprofiling, ukuqhathaniswa neminwe, ukuhlaziywa kweminwe, ukuchazwa kwezibhamu, ukuhlolwa kwemilaliso, ne-athomu ye-attic. Ukwethembeka kwalezi zindlela kuye kwahlolisiswa eminyakeni yamuva, okuholela ekuguquleni isayensi yezesayensi. I-National Academy of Sciences nezinye izindikimba ziye zakhuthaza ukuhlola okusemthethweni kanye nokulawula izinga lokuvimbela izinkolelo ezingalungile.

Imishini Yokulungisa Izinombolo Nemishini Yobuchwepheshe

Njengoba ukwanda kobugebengu be-minucro, ukugcinwa komthetho kusebenzisa imvume yokuseshwa kwamacomputer nomakhalekhukhwini, amarekhodi avela emadolobheni asemangqamuzaneni (CSLI), ngisho nasembonini yezwe kuyafuneka ukuba kubonwe imishini eduze kwezigcawu zobugebengu. Ukuthunga i-maintertap kudinga izinga eliphakeme kakhulu. "Isihloko III se-Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act" futhi kumelwe sigunyazwe umahluleli obonisa ukuthi ubugebengu obuthile bukhona. Ukushintsha ngokushesha kwezindawo ezingokomthetho ezizuzwe ubufakazi bezemishini kudinga ukushintshwa njalo kwenqubo.

Ubufakazi Bohlu Lohlu Lozalo Nobufakazi

Ukubonakala kwalabo abazibonela kunganamandla kodwa akunakwethenjelwa. Ukuphoqelelwa komthetho kumelwe kulandele imikhuba engcono kakhulu: ukuphatha kwezimpumputhe kabili (isikhulu esiphethe umcabango asazi ukuthi ubani), ukugwema amazwi asikiselayo, nokuqopha lenqubo. INkantolo Ephakeme yase-U.S. ikholelwa ukuthi izinqubo ezisikiselayo zingqubuzana nenqubo efanelekile uma ziveza ithuba eliqinisekile lokudukisa.

Ukuqoqa Ubufakazi Emacala Omphakathi

Empikiswaneni yomphakathi, ukubuthana kobufakazi kushukunyiswa ngokuyinhloko amaqembu ngokwawo ngenqubo engokomthetho ebizwa ngokuthi ukutholakala, ebuswa iFederal Miles of Civil Procedire (enkantolo kahulumeni) nemithetho efanayo kahulumeni. Umgomo uwukugwema ukumangala lapho kuqulwa icala futhi uvumele uhlangothi ngalunye ukuba lulungiselele icala lalo.

Amathuluzi Okuthola

Ukutholakala kwamathuluzi ambalwa asetshenziswa abameli ukuze bathole ubufakazi kubantu abaphikisana nabo nakubantu besithathu:

  • Imibuzo elotshiwe okumelwe iphendulwe ngaphansi kwesifungo, elinganiselwe kumashumi amathathu (enkantolo kahulumeni).
  • Izicelo zokuveza amabhukwana: Izicelo zezincwadi ezicacisiwe noma ulwazi olugcinwe nge-tektroniki (ESI). Lena indlela eyinhloko yokuthola ubufakazi obugciniwe.
  • Izimemo zokugunyaza: izisho okumelwe omunye avume noma aphike; ukuvuma kungalandelana.
  • [ Izimo:[ Ubufakazi obuyimidaba obuthathwe ngaphansi kwesifungo ngaphandle kwenkantolo, phambi kwentatheli yasenkantolo. Izikhokhi zivumela abameli ukuba bahlole ulwazi nokhiye kofakazi.
  • [ Subpoenas:[ iziyalo zomthetho ezigunyaza ukuba zingakhiqizi amabhukwana noma ufakaze ekugcinweni.
  • [[I-FLT:0] Ukuhlola okungokomzimba nokungokwengqondo: Ezimweni ezilimazayo zomuntu siqu, kungase kudingeke ukuba omunye avume ukuxilonga ngokwakhe (IME).

Imininingwane

I-ligituration yanamuhla ihlanganisa ukwaziswa okuningi okugcinwe ngemishini. I-E-corification idinga izigigaba ukuba zibone, ziqoqe, ziqoqe, zikhiqize futhi zikhiqize i-ESI. Imithetho ye-Federal of Civil Procedure. I-Equality ilungiswe ukuze ikwazi ukuhlanganisa i-(inani lokuthola ukwaziswa okulingana nezidingo zecala, uma kucatshangelwa inani lempikiswano, ukubaluleka kwempikiswano, kanye nemithombo yemali. I-Sanctions ngenxa yokwehluleka ukulondoloza i-EI (imposiso) ingaba lukhuni, kuhlanganise neziyalezo eziphikisayo noma ukulahla ngokuqondile.

Ukuthola Izazi

Ofakazi abaqavile kumelwe bavezwe, futhi imibiko yabo kumelwe iqukethe inkulumo ephelele yayo yonke imibono, isisekelo nezizathu, ukwaziswa okucatshangelwayo, kanye nezimfanelo zochwepheshe. Ophikisayo angase asuse uchwepheshe. I-Daubert[[FL:1] umsebenzi wokugcina amasango ngokuvamile udlalwa phakathi nokuthola, ngokuthatha uhambo ukuze akhiphe ubufakazi obungochwepheshe ngaphambi kokuqulwa kwecala.

Ukungakholelwa Nokusebenzisa Ubufakazi Enkantolo

Uma nje kuqoqiwe ubufakazi, ukusetshenziswa kwayo enkantolo kuxhomeke ekugcwaliseni imithetho yobufakazi − ngokusho okukhulu iFederal Pages of Evidence (FRE) enkantolo kahulumeni nezimiso zikahulumeni ezihambelanayo. Umsekeli kumelwe abonise ukuthi inzuzo yokubuthwa akulinganiswa kakhulu nobandlululo olungafanele, ukudideka, noma ukuchithwa kwesikhathi (FRE 403). Ukungaqondakali futhi kudinga ukuba kube neqiniso, ukushiyana kwemizwa, nokulalela imithetho ehloniphekile.

Ukuzwa Nezici Ezihlukile

Isay/an project ebekwe ngaphandle kwe-count ukuze kufakazelwe iqiniso lendaba (impela i-Fre 802). Kodwa kunezinkulumo eziningi ezihlukile, njengamazwi okwelashwa, amarekhodi ebhizinisi, amazwi avusa inkanuko, nezinkulumo ezimelene nesithakazelo. Ukwethembeka kwalezi zici kuxhomeke emasikweni angokomthetho amile. Ezimweni zobugebengu, iSiphakamiso u-Claus (Inguquko Ye-i-Stth) sifaka ezinye izivikelo: izindlebe ezivela kongaveli ekuqulweni kwecala zibonakala zingenamfashini ngaphandle kokuba ideclarvant ingekho futhi ummangalelwa wayene ithuba eliphambili lokuthatha ithuba lokunqamlula ([[FLD:]] [FLD]] [FLD]]

Ubukanela Bokuwinwa Kwabantwana

Ukuze ubufakazi obuphathekayo bungakholeki, umsekeli kumelwe abonise ukuthi ubufakazi abuzange bungashintshiwe noma bushintshwe. Lokhu kudinga uxwebhu lwabo bonke abantu abasingatha ubufakazi, izimo ababebugcine ngaphansi kwazo, nanoma iziphi ezinye izimo. Ezicabeni zobugebengu, abamangalelwa ngokuvamile kumelwe babize ofakazi ukuze basungule ucingo lokugcinwa kwejele; ezimweni zomphakathi, izindinganiso eziqinile zingasebenza (umk., amarekhodi ebhizinisi isisekelo). Ukuphulwa kweketheku kungathinta isisindo kodwa hhayi ukuhluleka kobugebengu.

Umthwalo Wobufakazi Nezindinganiso

Umthwalo wobufakazi uhluka kakhulu phakathi kwamacala omphakathi nawezigebengu:

  • Icala eliqulwayo: Ukushushisa inkantolo kumele kufakazele zonke izici ngaphandle kokungabaza okunengqondo. Lokhu kuyindinganiso ephakeme kakhulu esimisweni somthetho, ebonisa imiphumela enzima yokuqiniseka.
  • Icala le- Icala le-Civil:[ I-paltiff ngokuvamile ithwala umthwalo wobufakazi ngokubhekisisa ubufakazi(i.e.e, cishe kuyiqiniso kunangendlela engakho. Ezinye izisho zomphakathi (umz., ukukhwabanisa) zidinga ubufakazi obucacile nobukholisayo, indinga ephakathi nendawo.

Ngenxa yemithwalo ehlukahlukene, ubufakazi obungase bube obanele endabeni yomphakathi bungase bunganele ukusekela ukuqashelwa kwecala lobugebengu.

Ukunikezwa Kwe - Jury

Ama-athorney asebenzisa ubufakazi bokulandisa indaba evumelanayo kubahluleli. Ubufakazi bokubukisa buwusizo kakhulu emacaleni ayinkimbinkimbi. Abahluleli bakhipha izimemezelo ngokuphikisa (ukuphikisa, inzwabethi, imibuzo eholela) phakathi nokuqulwa kwecala. Zombili izinhlangothi zingathatha isinyathelo ukuze zithole ukwahlulela njengendaba yomthetho uma ubufakazi bunganele. Ngemva kokuqulwa kwecala, abahluleli abasekelwe ngamabomu ebufakazi obunikezwayo kuphela.

Izinselele Ezihlanganiswayo Zobufakazi

Naphezu kwezinqubo ezicophelelayo, ubufakazi obuhlanganisa inqwaba yezinselele ezingathinta imiphumela yezenzakalo.

Ukulinganiselwa Okungokomthetho Namalungelo Omthetho - sisekelo

Imithetho elawula ukuseshwa nokuthathelwa indle ingavimbela ukuqoqwa kobufakazi. ISichibiyelo sesine esinqabela ukuphenya okungenangqondo sidinga imvume yokuseshwa okuningi; ubufakazi obungatholakali ngokungemthetho bunganqandwa. ISichibiyelo sesihlanu singavimbela ukucindezelwa kobufakazi obuzimele. Ezimweni zomphakathi, umkhiqizo wemfundiso yezemisebenzi kanye nelungelo elisemthethweni kuvikela izinto ezithile ekutholweni.

Ukuthembeka Kofakazi Nezinkinga Zenkumbulo

Inkumbulo yalabo abazibonela ithonyeka futhi ingcoliswe ngemibuzo ephambili, ukuchayeka kwemithombo yezindaba, nokudlula kwesikhathi. Ngokufanayo, ofakazi abavamile bangase baqonde izenzakalo ngokungeyikho. Ubufakazi obuqand ’ ikhanda bokungakhunjulwa bungavunywa kwezinye izindawo. Ukuhlola kobuqhawe ngokuvamile kuyingxenye enzima kakhulu yokuqulwa kwecala.

Izimpikiswano Zesayensi Ezingokwesayensi Ezingokwesayensi Ezingokwemvelo

Izifundo eziningi ezingokwesiko ze-fonsic − njenge processopy yezinwele, ukucusha izimpawu zokuhlaziya, nokuhlola izibhamu zemishini yokuhlola i-"/_ikhubaza isayensi). I-FBI ibone amaphutha ezicabeni zokuhlola izinwele. Manje uMnyango weJaji ufuna izindinganiso eziqinile ukuze kutholakale ubufakazi bokuhlalwa kwezinwele. Ukukhishwa kwe-DNA kuye kwembula izimpikiswano zesimiso esiqhubeka sisingathwa ngezinguquko ezinjenge-National Commission on Forensic Science.

Ubunkimbinkimbi Bobufakazi Bezinombolo

Ubufakazi obuningi be-minute digital − i-email, imibhalo, i-metameter, ukugcina amafu , kwenza ukubukeza nokukhiqizwa kwefu kube yizindleko. I-technology eyinkimbinkimbi ingazama ukufihla noma ukulahla ubufakazi obusezingeni eliphansi. Amathuluzi alwa nogesi nokukhipha i-exensic project. Izibopho zokulondoloza i-octal zidinga izimemezelo ezingokomthetho zokukhipha izimemezelo futhi zivimbele ukucisha. Izijeziso zokuzimela ezizimela zivame kakhulu njengoba izinkantolo zigcizelela umsebenzi wokulondoloza i-EI.

Izindleko Nemithombo Yezinto Eziyigugu Kulinganiselwe

Kuzo zombili izenzakalo zomphakathi nezezezigebengu, iqembu elinezimali ezimbalwa lingase lilwele ukuqoqa ubufakazi. Abavikeli bomphakathi abasingatha imithwalo enzima bangase bantule abaphenyi. Abasemzabalazweni bangase bangakwazi ukuthenga izinto ezibizayo ezitholakalayo − njengemali egciniwe noma izindleko zobuchwepheshe. Izenzo zezezimali zingagxila ezindlekweni ezikhokhwayo, futhi izinkantolo zingalinganisela ukutholakala ngaphansi kwesimiso sokulinganisa.

Ukucabangela Okunengqondo

Imithetho inemisebenzi yezimiso zokulondoloza ubufakazi, ukugwema ukuqamba amanoni, futhi igwema ukunikeza ofakazi iziphakamiso noma ukwesabisa. I - ABA Model Reals of Professional Palevement idinga ukumelelwa okufanelekile nokuziphatha okuqotho. Ubufakazi obuqinile buwukwephulwa okukhulu okungokokuziphatha okungaholela ekulahleni isijeziso nasemacaleni obugebengu.

Isiphetho

Ubufakazi buyindaba ebaluleke kakhulu yamacala onke angokomthetho. Kusukela ekuqoqweni kokuqala ngokugcinwa komthetho noma ngokutholakaliswa komphakathi, kuya ezindinganisweni eziqinile zokungasheshi ukufezeka kanye nasekunikezelweni kokugcina komphathi wejaji, isinyathelo ngasinye sibuswa ngemithetho eklanyelwe ukuqinisekisa ubufakazi obuqotho, ukwethembeka, nobulungisa. Umehluko phakathi kwamacala omphakathi nowezobugebengu. (_ukubekwa kobufakazi, izindlela zokuqoqa, kanye nesivikelo somthetho-mthetho, kanye nendlela esetshenziswa ngayo.) Njengoba ubuchwepheshe bushintsha futhi ukuqonda kwesayensi kukhula, isimiso somthetho kumelwe siqhubeke sivumelanisa izinhlobonhlobo ezintsha zobufakazi nezinselele. Ukuqonda umthetho kudingekile nganoma yibuphi ubufakazi esimisweni sobulungisa, futhi nanoma ubani ofuna ukuqonda ukuthi amaqiniso anquma kanjani ukuthi ingxabano.

Ukuze ufunde ngokwengeziwe, bheka imithetho ethatha indawo ye- yobufakazi (I-Cornell LII) kanye ABE-Discope Discovery Special[.