Indlela Ohulumeni Abasebenzisa Ngayo Isichibiyelo Seshumi Nane Ukuze Bavikele Izakhamuzi

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane seSichibiyelo, esagunyazwa ngo-1868, singenye yezinguquko ezilandelayo ezinkulu kumthetho-sisekelo we-United States. Saklanyelwa ukuvikela amalungelo abantu ababegqilaziwe ngemva kweMpi Yombango, kodwa ulimi lwaso olubanzi luye lwayivumela ukuba ibe isisekelo sesivikelo esingenakubalwa senkululeko yomuntu ngamunye nokulingana. Ohulumeni abasembusweni, embusweni, nase amazingeni endawo bathembele ekulweleni kokubili ukuze bavikele izakhamuzi ezinyathelweni ezicini ezizimele zikahulumeni futhi baphoqelele ukuphatha impathikaliso efanayo ngaphansi komthetho. Lesi sihloko sihlola izigwebo ezinkulu zeSiphendulo se-14 Nendlela abaye bayisebenzisa ngayo ukuze balondoloze amalungelo ezakhamuzi, inqubo efanelekile, nenkululeko eyisisekelo.

Ukuvela KweSichibiyelo Seshumi Nane

Inkathi yangemva kweMpi yafuna ukubuyiselwa komthetho-sisekelo. ISichibiyelo seshumi nantathu saqeda ubugqila, kodwa ngokushesha iNingizimu yamisa izikhulu zezwe zamanzi zamanzi “Imithetho Emnyama” eyayiyivimbela kakhulu inkululeko yaseMelika abaNsundu. ISichibiyelo seshumi nane leSichibiyelo sabuningi sabuswa ngokuqinisekisa ukuthi le mithetho ayinabulungisa i-mosfecrate futhi ikhona ngokomthetho. Sinelungiselelo eliyisihluthulelo: i-Conicigation Clausle, amaZwe noma ama-Immunions Claus, i-Classe, i-Active Proce Proce Clace, ne-Active Protection Classide. Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, la malungiselelo aye anika anika amathuluzi anamandla okuvikela izakhamuzi ekucwaseni kobandlululo nokungalungisiswa.

Ukuvikela UClaus Ngokulinganayo

I-Umeal Protection Clause ithi: “Awukho uMbuso... ozophika noma yimuphi umuntu ophakathi kwegunya lakhe isivikelo esifanayo semithetho.” Lombhalo ubeyisikhali esiyinhloko somthetho-sisekelo esimelene nemithetho nemithetho yezembulo. Ohulumeni [1] ikakhulukazi uhulumeni nezinkantolo zikahulumeni − ukushaya imithetho ephatha abantu ngokwehlukile ngokwezinhlanga, ubulili, ubuzwe, noma ezinye izinhlanga ezisolekayo.

Ukusetshenziswa Komlando: Ukuqeda Ubandlululo

Ukusetshenziswa okudume kakhulu kwe-Uncimeal Protection Claus kwafika Brown v. Board of Education (1954), lapho iNkantolo Ephakeme yayithi ukuhlukaniswa kwezinhlanga ezikoleni zomphakathi akunabo ubungako ngokwemvelo. Emashumini eminyaka alandelayo, izinkantolo zasebenzisa indlela efanayo yokuhlukanisa indawo ezindlini, zokuhamba, izindawo zomphakathi, nemisebenzi. Icala alikuvikeli nje kuphela ukucwalwa ngenhloso; futhi izinkantolo zanamuhla zisebenzisa ukubukeza imingcele ehlukene emaqembuni avikelweyo, nakuba zihlola ngokushintshashintshashintsha kwemibalwa.

Ukulingana Kwezinhlanga

I-Unicible Protection Claus iye yabhebhetheka kakhulu ekulinganani kwabobulili obufanayo. Reed v. Reed [771] kanye [[FLT]] Craig v. Boren[ [1997], iNkantolo Ephakeme imise ukuthi imithetho ehlela ubulili ngokobulili kumelwe isebenzise injongo kahulumeni” futhi ihlobene kakhulu nayo. Lendinganiso ebizwa ngokuthi “ukuhlola kwezengatshathiwe". Imithetho esekelwe engosini, njengaleyo ehlukanisa amalungelo empahla, amathuba okusebenza, nokufinyelela inkonzo yezempi. Uhulumeni uyaqhubeka uthembele ekuvikeleni ukulingana, ukukhucululwa kweze nakunikezwa imfundo.

Ukuncoma Amalungelo Nokufuna Ukuzuza

I-Unicime Providence Claus ibusa futhi amalungelo okuvota kanye nokumelelwa kwezombangazwe. Reynolds v. Sims (1964), iNkantolo ePhakamileyo yanquma ukuthi izigodi zemithetho yemithetho yesizwe kumelwe zilingane kubantu.] “umuntu oyedwa, ivota elilodwa” isimiso. Lokhu kuqinisekise ukumelelwa okulungile futhi kuvinjelwe ukubekwa kwasemaphandleni. Muva nje, isigqebhebhebhethezi siye sasetshenziselwa ukubekela igegerrymantering, imithetho ye-votor, neminye imithetho ethinta i-votiveze ngokungenakuphikiswa. [Izimende ye-National:]

Izinhlelo ezilindelekile

I-Gast Process Claus imemezela ukuthi akukho mbuso ozokhipha “noma imuphi umuntu wokuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho.” Lesi siqinisekiso sinezilinganiso ezimbili ezingafani: inqubo efanelekile nenqubo efanelekile. Zombili zingamathuluzi abalulekile okuvikela izakhamuzi esenzweni sikahulumeni esizimele.

Inqubo ejwayelekile

Inqubo efanelekile idinga ukuba ngaphambi kokuba uhulumeni asuse ukuphila komuntu, inkululeko, noma impahla, ihlanganise izinqubo ezilungile. Lokhu kuhlanganisa ukuqaphela okwanele ukumangalelwa, ithuba lokuzwakala, isinqumo esingenalundlululu, nelungelo lokunikeza ubufakazi. Ohulumeni bathembela kulezi zimfuneko ukuze baqinisekise ukuthi izenzo zabo zenzakalelayo ngokwezimali, njengokuqeda inzuzo yezenhlalakahle, ukulahla ilayisense, noma ukukhipha imvume engochwepheshe engasayi-izenzisi-(ukulandela). Izinkantolo ziye zasungula uvivinyo olulinganiselayo oluvivinya isithakazelo somuntu siqu esigxotsheni, izingozi zokuncishwa kwecala, nenzalo kahulumeni. Isibonelo, [[FLD:] [5] [b]

Inqubo Engeyona Inkinga

Inqubo efanelekile eyisisekelo ivikela amalungelo ayisisekelo angahlelwanga ngokuqondile eMthethweni-sisekelo, ngisho nalapho uhulumeni esebenzisa izinqubo ezifanele. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yaveza inkululeko enjengelungelo lokushada, ilungelo lokuba nabantwana, ilungelo lokufihla imfihlo, nelungelo lokwenqaba ukwelashwa njengevikelwe yile mfundiso. Izehlakalo zokwelapha ezifana Grillold v. Connecticut[[FL:1] [65] [65] [ilungelo lokushada), [[FLT] i-FLT] i-v. [FLT] [FLT] [2] [3] RFLT] [3] [7] [7] [7] [7] [7])) inqubo enzima yomthetho edinga inzuzo engcono kakhulu. Nakuba iqhubeka isetshenziswa nayiphi nayiphi inguquko emfuleni engcono kakhulu.[FL:0]

Isivikelo Senkululeko Engokomnotho

Nakuba iNkantolo ePhakeme kakhulu yashiya inqubo edingayo yezomnotho yenkathi Lochner (eyephula imithetho yeholo neyomahora), ohulumeni banamuhla basasebenzisa inqubo efanele ukuqapha imithetho engokomnotho ewumthetho. Izinkantolo zisebenzisa isisekelo esinengqondo, zifuna kuphela ukuba umthetho uhlolwe ngokunengqondo. Lokhu kuye kwavumela amazwe ukuba alawule imikhuba yezebhizinisi, impahla, asebenzise izivumelwano isikhathi eside kakhulu njengoba umthetho ungekhona okungenangqondo noma ukuphindisela. I-Claus Process Precioce inikeza indawo engaphansi lapho inkululeko yezomnotho ingenakuwa ngaphandle kwesizathu esigunyazayo.

Imfundiso Yokuvumelana

I-Incorporation Doctrine isimiso somthetho sokuthi isivikelo seBhili of Rights sisebenza kumazwe ngeSiphendulo se-Claus se-Createment se-14th Reclaus. Ekuqaleni, iBhili of Rights yamane yavimbela uhulumeni kahulumeni. INkantolo Ephakeme yaqala ngokukhetha “ukuqinisekisa” iziqinisekiso eziqondile ekuqaleni kwekhulu lama-20 leminyaka, futhi namuhla cishe wonke amalungiselelo enguquko yokuqala eyisishiyagalombili aye asetshenziswa embusweni kahulumeni nasehulumenini.

Amalungelo Ahlanganisiwe Isikhathi Esiningi

Amalungelo abalulekile aye ahlanganiswa ahlanganisa:

  • Isichibiyeli sokuqala [ inkululeko: ukukhuluma, ukunyathelisa, inkolo, umhlangano, isicelo (ukuqala Gitlow v. New York, 1925).
  • [[QULT:0] Isichibiyeli soMphetho wesine sivikela ekuphenyeni okungacabangeki nokuquleka ([[QUT:2]]] Mapp v. Ohio, 1961]).
  • [[QUTY:0] Isichibiyeli se-FT sivikela ekuzivoteleni ngokwakho ( Malloy v. Hogan, 1964]) kanye nengozi ephindwe kabili ([[[FLT:]Benton v. Maryland, 1969]).
  • [[QULT:0] Isichibiyeli se-SICT lungelo lokululeka ( Gideon v. Wainwright[, 1963], ukuphikisana kofakazi, ukuqulwa kwecala okusheshayo, nokuqulwa kwamajaji.
  • Isivikelo seSichibiyelo somphetho ekujezisweni konya nokungajwayelekile ( Robinson v. California), 1962) nebheyili ephakeme.

Ukuhlobanisa kuqinisekisa ukuthi ohulumeni bamazwe abanakwephula amalungelo omthetho-mthetho kahulumeni. Izinhlangano zomthetho ophoqelela ukugcinwa kwezakhamuzi, izikhungo zesikole, kanye nezishaya-mthetho zezwe zonke zisebenza ngaphansi kwezithiyo ezifanayo nohulumeni. Lokhu kuvikela izakhamuzi emsebenzini onciphileyo wezindinganiso zomthetho futhi kuyisisekelo senkululeko yomphakathi yanamuhla. Ukufunda okwengeziwe ngokuhlanganiswa kwe-Cornell Legal Information Institute[.

Amalungelo Angasetshenziswa

IMikhankaso embalwa yamaLungelo asasetshenziswa, njengeSichibiyelo sesithathu (isikhungo samasosha) nemfuneko yeSichibiyelo sesihlanu sokubekwa icala okukhulu. ISichibiyelo Sesibili sokuphatha futhi sithwale izikhali safakwa McDonald v. Chicago [2010], ixazulule impikiswano ethatha isikhathi eside. INkantolo iye yanqaba futhi ukuhlanganisa ezinye izici zokuqulwa kwesinqumo sezehlulelo sesizwe seSikhawu Sokulunga. Noma kunjalo, i-Incoration Doctive Doctrinery ibingeli elilodwa lamathuluzi anamandla kakhulu okuvikela amalungelo abantu esinyathelo sikahulumeni.

Izinselele Ezingokomthetho Namacala Avelele

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane siye sabangela ukubekwa kwecala kweNkantolo Ephakeme kunanoma iliphi elinye ilungiselelo lomthetho-sisekelo. Amacala aphawula imingcele yamandla kahulumeni namalungelo omuntu ngamunye. Ngezansi kunezici eziyinhloko lapho ukulungisa kuye kwahlolwa khona futhi kwacwengisiswa khona.

Ukulingana Kobuhlanga Nesenzo Esiqinisayo

Ku u-Regents wase-University of California v. Bakke [788] nezenzakalo zamuva ezifana u-Guritaimer v. Bollinger[ [2003] [iNkantolo], iNkantolo yasekela ukuthi imigaqo yemfundo ephakeme esekelwe emfundweni wemfundo ingasinda ekuhlolweni okulinganayo uma ihloselwe ukufinyelela inzuzo ehlukene njengesithakazelo esiphoqeleleneyo. [[FLT]] ] izimcazelo ze-Fair Adgictss v.[[FLD:] [20]) iyagumbula leyo yindlela yokuthola isivikelo esilinganayo. Lokhu kubonisa i-Classicssion ebonakala njalo ngohulumeni, kumelwe kuvumelanisa izimfuneko zabo ezingokomthetho.

Ukuncoma Amalungelo Nokudumazeka

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane ngokwaso sihlanganisa isijeziso sezindawo eziphika ukuvota: ukuncishiswa kwemikhandlu. Lelo lungiselelo alikaze liphoqelelwe, kodwa iSigaba 2 siye sakhonjwa ezimpikiswaneni zokudilizwa kwefelon, imithetho yokulahla imithetho. Ricardson v. Ramirez [1979]], iNkantolo Ephakeme yanquma ukuthi ukudiliza i-Franchise, kodwa ukunqamuka kwe-fenycencerce kubekwe ezimpikiswaneni ze-fensone, njengoba ulimi lwe-Grandementation ibonakala ikuvumela. Amanye amazwe aye avumela kusukela ekulungiseni imithetho yawo, kuyilapho amanye aqhubeka ehlukanisa izinombolo ezinkulu zezakhamuzi, ezithinta idlanzana ngokulinganayo. I-Hulumes manje i-Evicense i-se ayaggconst ngokomthetho yanamuhla.

Umshado Ofanayo Namalungelo Omkhaya

iNkantolo yacabanga ukuthi inkululeko evikelwe ngenqubo efanele ihlanganisa ilungelo lokushada, futhi ukuphika lokho okunelungelo lemibhangqwana elinganayo ye-exxklbene kwaphula isivikelo. Ohulumeni kuzo zonke izigaba kwakudingeka banikeze izivumelwano zomshado ezifanayo futhi baqaphele imishado yabo kwezinye izifunda. Lokhu kubonisa ukuthi izigaba ezimbili zingasebenza kanjani ndawonye ukuze zivikele amalungelo abalulekile.

Abafuduki Nezakhamuzi Ezingabikwanga

ISikhundla sika-Claus seSichibiyelo seshumi nane leminyaka simemezela ukuthi bonke abantu abazalwa noma abadalwe e-United States futhi abangaphansi kwegunya labo bayizakhamuzi. Lokhu kusekela ubuzibulo, isimiso esiye saphikiswana kodwa sasekelwa izinkantolo. Plyler v. [1992], iNkantolo yashaya umthetho wase-Texas inqabela ukuba izingane zingafundi ngenkululeko, ibambelele ekutheni isivikelo sika Clauslee, hhayi izakhamuzi kuphela. Umbuso nohulumeni kumelwe uqinisekise ukuthi imithetho yabo angayikhethi ngokungakhethi ngaphandle kokulunga. [FLT:] ilandela ngokuqhubekayo i-unistryry party on SCUSTY] [FFFFF]

Izithobo zamanje kanye neziqondiso zesikhathi esizayo

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane siyaqhubeka siyithuluzi eliphilayo lokuvikela izakhamuzi. Izinkantolo zicelwa ngokwandayo ukuba zisebenzise izimiso zazo kubuchwepheshe obusha, amalungelo okuzala, nokuhlakanipha kokuzenzela. Ngokwesibonelo, ukusetshenziswa kwemithetho elandelwayo ekugwetshweni kobugebengu nakubupolisa obubikezelayo kuphakamisa ukukhathazeka okufanayo uma ihlasela amadlana amancane. Ohulumeni abaphethe isilinganiso sikahulumeni bashaya imithetho yokulawula le sayensi, futhi izinkantolo ziyozivivinya ngokumelene nesiqinisekiso seSiphendulo se - 147.

Imininingwane Nezinto Eziningi

Ku i-Carplate v. United States (2018), iNkantolo Ephakeme yathi ukuthola kukahulumeni amarekhodi endawo yocingo kudinga imvume ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo sesine, kodwa iNkantolo isikisela nokuthi inqubo efanele ebekelwe ingevikela ukulindeleka okulinganiselwe kwemfihlo. I-omssion esemthethweni, kodwa iSichibiyelo se-14 sinikeza umthetho osemthethweni. Njengoba ubuchwepheshe bokuhlola buqala buye banda kakhulu, izakhamuzi zingathembela enqubeni efaneleni yokubekela iqoqo lemininingwane yezincwadi.

Indabuko yamalungelo Post-[[QULT:0] AmaDobbs

Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme siphethe ukuthi iSichibiyelo se 14 asikhuseli ilungelo lokukhipha isisu. Nokho, i-pasteen’s Health Organization (2022]) ibuye ihlehlise [ Roe v. Wade[, ibambe ukuthi iSichibiyelo seSijiyo seshumi Nane asilivikeli ilungelo lokukhipha isisu. Nokho, ukunqanda kusene kuvikela ezinye inkululeko yokuzala, njengalungelo lokuvimbela inzalo (ukuvimbela ukuvimbela ukukhishwa kwezisu [[FLT:]]]] [FLTLT]] [FLT:]] kanye [FLT] ne i-entectet.[Flth .[FLD [FLD7]]]) ishobo esemthethweni wokwengeziwe wokwenziswa ukukhipha imvume yokukhipha imvume yokukhipha imvume yokukhipha isijeziso.

Ukungalingani Kwezomnotho Namalungelo Noma UClaus

Amalungelo noma ama-Inmunitute Claus weSichibiyelo se-14th, esacishe sachithwa yi-Slaughter - House Cases (1873), siye sabona ukubuyiselwa okuncane. Ezinye izazi zomthetho namajaji aphikisa ngokuthi kufanele ivikele amalungelo ayisisekelo angahlanganisiwe yi-Century Procession Claus, njengamalungelo okuhamba nelungelo lokuhlanganyela emsebenzini ofanayo. Ohulumeni bangasebenzisa lesi sigqebhezana ukuqinisekisa ukuthi imithetho kahulumeni ayiwabekeli ngokungenamthethweni amathuba ezomnotho, nakuba iNkantolo Ephakeme ibimadoda ukuwavuselela. [[FL:0] [Explore] amalungelo noma ama-Immunion Claussmusss ewebhhhh [FFFFLD:1].

Isiphetho

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane sisalokhu siyisici somthetho sisekelo sokuvikela izakhamuzi kuhulumeni ophathwe kabi nobandlululo. Ukusukela kuyi-Uncible Protection Clause kuya kwi-Adry Procession Claus ne-Incorporation Doctive, ohulumeni kuzo zonke izinga lokuncika kulamalungiselelo okuphoqelela ubulungisa, ukulingana, nokuthembeka kwezimiso. Amacala amacala aphawulayo aye andisa ukufinyela kokuhlenga kwezakhamuzi, kodwa umbhalo ngokwawo awukashintshi kusukela ngo-1868. Isizukulwane ngasinye kumelwe sichaze futhi sisebenzise izimiso zawo ezinkingeni ezintsha, siqinisekisa ukuthi isithembiso senkululeko nesivikelo siyaqhubeka. Njengoba umphakathi ushintsha, iSiphendumiso seshumi nane siyoqhubeka sinohlelo olungokomthetho olufuna ubulungisa nohulumeni abafuna ukulandisa.

Incwajana [[FLT: 0] Author: Lesi sihloko sesenzela izinjongo zokwaziswa kuphela futhi asikhiqizi iseluleko esingokomthetho. Emibuzweni engokomthetho eqondile, thintana nommeli ogunyaziwe.