Ukuqonda Ukuhlangana KoMbusi Wezwe Ekumangaleni Kombango

Imfundiso engokomthetho eyisisekelo evikela ohulumeni ukuba bangamangalelwa enkantolo kahulumeni noma kahulumeni ngaphandle kwemvume yabo. Isekelwe esimisweni sasendulo sokuthi “inkosi ayenze phutha,” lemfundiso iye yashintsha yaba umngcele oyinkimbinkimbi emandleni ezakhamuzi ezizimele okufuna usizo lokwahlulela ngokumelene nombuso. Kunoma ubani ohileleke ekumangalelweni kwesizwe. / Ukuba ngokomthetho njengommangalelwa, ummangalelwa, noma ummeli . . . Ukuveza izimpawu zokuvikela kobukhosi kubalulekile.

Lesi sihloko sinikeza ukuhlola okubanzi kokuzivikela kombuso, ukusekela kwawo umlando, ukusebenza kwaso kwanamuhla ngeSichibiyelo seshumi nanye, ithonya laso eliyinhloko, ithonya elikhulu emacala alwela amalungelo omphakathi, itort, nenqubo yomphakathi. Ekugcineni, abafundi bayoqonda ukucatshangelwa okubalulekile kokuba kokubili abamangalelwa kanye nabamangalelwa bombuso kumelwe bahambe lapho kuphakama isivikelo sobukhosi.

Imisuka Engokomlando Yokungahlangani KoMbusi

Umqondo wokuzimela ukuvikela kombuso ubuyele emuva emthethweni wamaNgisi, lapho uMbuso wawubhekwa njengogonyiwe esubeni ezinkantolo zawo. Lomqondo wathunyelwa emakoloni aseMelika futhi kamuva wafakwa ekwakhiweni komthetho kwasekuqaleni kwe-United States. Nokho, abaQaki bempi babewaqapha amandla kahulumeni angalawuliwe, okwabangela ukungezwani phakathi kwesidingo sokulandisa kukahulumeni nesifiso sokuvikela amagugu nemisebenzi yombuso ekuxazululeni okuphazamisayo.

Chajolm v. Georgia [1793], iNkantolo ePhakeme yase-U.S. yavumela izakhamuzi ezizimele ukuba zidlulise inkantolo kahulumeni, zibangele ukuphambana okusheshayo. Ezethu ukuthi lokhu kuzozichaya kumasudi angapheli nasencipheni yemali. Ukusabela kwakushesha: iSichibiyelo seSimemezelo seshumi Nesihlanu sagunya lagunyazwa ngo1795, ngokucacisa amandla okwahlulela angokomthetho phezu kwesamba sezindawo ezimelene nezakhamuzi zemibuso ethile noma izizwe zakwamanye amazwe. Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, incazelo yokwahlulela yandisa isivikelo sentambo yokukhosela isamba sezakhamuzi zikahulumeni ngokwabo.

Isichibiyelo Seshumi Nanye: Isisekelo Somthetho - sisekelo

ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nenye seMikhankaso yezeMibuso yeZwe siphawula: “Nakuba amandla okwahlulela eUnited States ngeke athathwe ukuba adlulisele kunoma yisiphi isisombululo engokomthetho noma ngokungakhethi, aqalwe noma amangalelwe omunye wase-United States yizakhamuzi zeZwe elithile, noma izakhamuzi noma izihloko zanoma isiphi isifundazwe.” Nakuba umbhalo wawo ubonakala uwumngcingo, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yawufundela isimiso esibanzi sokuzivikela sikahulumeni esibopha konke okumelene nenkantolo yombuso, ngaphandle kokuba kusetshenziswe ngokuhlukile.

Lesimiso sokuvikela asisikho ngokuphelele. INkantolo iye yaqaphela ukuthi izifundazwe zingavuma ukuvumelana, iziKhomishane zingavimbela ukuvinjelwa ngaphansi kwemibuso ethile engokomthetho-mthetho, futhi amasutu kubaphathi bombuso ngenxa yokukhululeka okungalawuleki kungaqhubekela ngaphansi kwemfundiso ye- expacee Young[. Ukuqonda lokhu okuhlukile kuyingozi kunoma ubani ohlaziya ukungenzeki kokumelana nohulumeni.

Iziphambeko ZeNkantolo Ephakeme

Izinkantolo eziningi eziphawula izenzakalo ziye zalololonga lemfundiso. ku-Louisiana (1890), iNkantolo yasekela ukuthi iSichibiyelo seshumi Nenye simelana nesizwe ngezakhamuzi zaso siqu. Semunole Tribes of Florida. [[FLT][FLT] [19696] [Inhlangano] iqinisekisise ukuthi i-Congressbon ayikwazi ukuvikela ubukhosi bombuso ngeSishayamthetho I sodwa, njengezentengiselwano Claus. Muva nje, [[FLT:] Zonke] v.[FLT][FLD:] 2020] Ikhono leminyango lokuvikela i-Cexpold Becobusterns. Lezi zibonelone ze-Grolectivesting ezivikela umbuso oqinile we-Hlustration.

Indlela Ukuhlangana Kombuso Okuthinta Ngayo Ukuqanjwa Kwamacala Omphakathi

Uma ilungu leqembu lezentengiselwano limangalela uhulumeni noma elinye lezinhlangano zalo, ngokushesha uhulumeni ungathatha isinyathelo sokuxosha ngokusekelwe ekuvikelekeni kobukhosi. Uma ukuzivikela kusebenza, inkantolo ayinakho amandla alawulayo, futhi icala kumelwe lisuswe kungakhathaliseki ukuthi inaziphi izinzuzo.

Lesi simiso asisebenzi nje kuphela ekulimaleni kwemali kodwa nasempumulweni elinganayo ezimweni eziningi. Nokho, ukuvikeleka akubhekiseli ezikhulwini zikahulumeni ngamanye amakhono azo okuphula umthetho, futhi akuwabekeli izisu ngokumelene nohulumeni bendawo (inani) noma izigaba zezombangazwe, eziphathwa ngokungefani ngaphansi Monell v. New York City Dept. Services [.

Ithonya Ezithebeni Zokudlala Amathoyizi

Ukuzichaya ngokuvamile kubangelwa ukulimala komuntu siqu okubangelwa yizisebenzi zikahulumeni noma izimo ezingalondekile empahleni kahulumeni. Ukuzivikela kombuso kungavimbela lokhu kuveza ngaphandle kokuba uhulumeni ukhiphe isenzo sokuzisholo. Izifundazwe eziningi ziye zenza kanjalo, zifuna ukuvikela izingozi ezithile zobuwula, kodwa ngokuvamile zineziphatho zezaziso ezimfushane, futhi ngaphandle kwemisebenzi esemthethweni. Ngokwesibonelo, i-Federal Tort Intees Act idinga ukuzisho ukuthi ithunyelwe kuhulumeni phakathi nezinyanga eziyisithupha zokulimala, kanti i-Federal Tort Inteers Act inikeza i-ct elungile kakhulu futhi ngokuvamile ngenxa yezimfuneko zokuzibophono zokulwa ne-United States, kodwa hhayi ngokumelene nezwe.

Abachazi kumelwe bahlolisise isiphakamiso somthetho sikahulumeni ngamunye ukuze baqiniseke ukuthi bavumelana nazo zonke izimo. Ukwehluleka ukwenza kanjalo kuphumela esivimbeleni esiphelele sokululama.

Ukumangalelwa Kwamalungelo Omphakathi Ngaphansi Kwengxenye Ka - 1983

I-Civil Rights Act ka-19871, ehlanganiswe njengo-42 U.S.C. 1983, ivumela abantu ukuba bamangalelwe isifundazwe nezikhulu zendawo ngenxa yokuphulwa komthetho-mthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni noma amalungelo omthetho. Nokho, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yakwenza kwacaca ukuthi izikhulu zayo azizisho ukuthi “zingamalungu” afanelwe i-Cult 1983. All v. UMnyango we-Michigan we-Police [1999] zikholelwa ukuthi isifunda, izinhlangano zayo, nezikhulu zayo ezisebenza ezindaweni zayo ezingokomthetho zingowohlolwayo ukuba zingavikeleki ngaphansi kwe-R315.

Lokhu kusho ukuthi ezindabeni zamalungelo omphakathi, amaphekula awakwazi ukumangalela ngokuqondile umbuso ukuze athole impumuzo yemali. Kunalokho, kumelwe bamangalele izikhulu zikahulumeni ezindaweni zazo, bafune umonakalo ephaketheni lesikhulu ngokwaso (hayi umcebo kahulumeni), noma bafune ukukhululeka okulindelekile kuhulumeni ngaphansi [[FLT: 0]] Ex pacee Young . Umehluko ubucayi: isambatho somthetho sombuso sigwenywa ngokuphumelelayo ngokumelene nombuso futhi sivinjelwe, kuyilapho amasutusi angokomthetho eboshelwe kahle, kuyilapho amasutu awe-patro ngayinye evunyelwe kodwa kudingeka ukuba anqobe izikhuselo ezifanele.

Abahlukanisiwe Kuhulumeni OnguMbusi

Nakuba kunzima, ukugonyelwa kwesimiso sombuso akusona isithiyo esiphelele. Okuningana okungasungulwa kahle kuvumela ukufakwa kwe-ligita.

Ukuvuma Noma Ukukhomba NoMbuso

Umbuso ungasichitha ngokucace kakhulu isimiso sawo sokuzivikela sobukhosi ngomthetho noma ngokuvela enkantolo ngokuzithandela. Izifundazwe eziningi ziye zamisa izenzo ezibanzi zokuthi ukugonywa kwezikhali ezithile, ngokuvamile kubekwa ezinkapheni zemali nasezimfunekweni zokuphatha. Ngokwesibonelo, iNkantolo ye-New York Yomthetho Yokuvikela imfuno yomonakalo wempahla ethile nokuzilimaza komuntu siqu, kodwa umbuso kumelwe umangalelwe kuphela eNkantolo Yezinkantolo, hhayi ezinkantolo zezembubhiso.

Iwaiver ingachazwa futhi lapho isimo singena esivumelwaneni esihlanganisa isimemezelo esikhethekile somthetho noma isivumelwano sokukhipha, nakuba izinkantolo zingathandisisi ukuthola umenzi ngaphandle kokuba sicacile futhi singagwegwegwesi.

Ukuxoshwa Kwezingqungquthela

IziKhomuko zingasusa isinqumo sombuso sokuvikela uhulumeni uma wenza umsebenzi wokukhipha amandla omthetho-sisekelo agunyaza ukunyuliswa futhi abonise injongo eqinisekile yokwenza kanjalo. USomunome Tribe[ isinqumo, nokho, isilinganiso sekhono leSivumelwano sokuvimbela ukuqulwa kwemithetho ngaphansi kweSiphakamiso I. Ukukhucululwa kusebenza kakhulu kuphela ngaphansi kwelungiselelo leNguqulo ye 145 (Inguquko 5). Isibonelo, ilungiselelo lomkhaya nomthetho we-Regick Act lazinakekela ngokwalo lathathwa njengelungiselelo elisemthethweni [FLT:]2]] NHDA yoMnyango weZinkombazo. [bbbbs.][3][3], kodwa i-Actrine) eMbali we-Activesment:[F] [Foct] [5] [5]

Lokhu kudala isimo esingalindelekile sokucwaswa kwemisebenzi ngokungemthetho kwabaqashi bakahulumeni: Umthetho weSihlomo VII namaMelika anokukhubazeka uncike futhi ekuqinisisweni kweSichibiyelo seshumi nane, futhi ukuphakanyiswa kwabo kokuzivikela kuye kwasekelwa ezifundeni eziningi. Amaqhawe kumelwe ahlole umthetho wamanje ngoba iNkantolo iyaqhubeka icwenga imingcele yamandla ombuso.

3. [[I-FLT:0] Ex Parete Young[[FTL:1] Imfundiso: Izifacelo ngokumelene nabaphathi besifundazwe

Enye yemisebenzi ebaluleke kakhulu ehlanganisa i- imfundiso esungulwe ku-Ex e Young (08). Ivumela iziphathi ezizimele ukuba zidlulise icala kuhulumeni ezikhundleni zazo ezingokomthetho zokukhululeka kokulindele ukunqanda ukuphulwa komthetho kahulumeni okuqhubekayo. Indaba eqanjiwe ukuthi isikhulu sikahulumeni esingenzi ngokwesiko sikhutshwe ukuzivikela kombuso futhi singafakwa enkantolo yombuso. Lemfundiso ibalulekile ekwahluleleni amalungelo ezakhamuzi ukufuna ukuvala imithetho eqhubekayo esemthethweni, njenge-gerryderman, izimo zejele, noma ukuxhasa imfundo.

Okubalulekile, [[QT:0] Ex e Young ayivumeli amasudu enzuzo yemali ethatha emuva, njengomonakalo womonakalo wesikhathi esidlule. Lokho kungavinjelwa njengokubekwa okungakholekiyo emphongolweni wezimali kahulumeni.

Isudi Le - United States Noma Lamanye Ama - United States

IUnited States ingaphoqelela umthetho kahulumeni ngokumelene nombuso, futhi imibuso ingaxazulula izimpikiswano zomngcele noma ezinye izimpikiswano ngokubusa kweNkantolo Ephakeme.

5. Ukuqhubeka Kwezezimali

IBankruptic Claus yoMthetho - sisekelo inikeza iziphakamiso zeSishaya - mthetho amandla ngenxa yokuwa kwamalungelo abantu, futhi iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yathi ukugonyelwa kwesimiso sokuzibusa akukuvimbeli ukukhishwa kwezikweletu noma ukugcinwa kwemithetho yokuwiswa kwemali kohulumeni.

Izincwadi Eziwusizo Zezimemezelo Nezikhasimende

Kubantu abafuna ukumangalela uhulumeni wezwe, isinyathelo sokuqala ukunquma ukuthi i-tort ithi iyasebenza yini. Ingabe i-tort ithi ingenza ukuzivikela kohlobo oluthile lwento eshiwoyo? Ingabe ukhona umthetho kahulumeni owenzelwe ukuvikela ipropati? Ingabe ukuzisholo kungabekwa njengesudi kumphathi wezwe ngaphansi Ex etho ye Young?

Abameli kumelwe bacabangele futhi ukumiswa okufanele. Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zingaba nabaxoshi abaphaphamele kakhulu bokuzivikela kunabakhothi bakahulumeni. Ngokwesibonelo, ezinye izifundazwe zivumela amasudi ezinkantolo zazo siqu ukuba zisho iziphakamiso ezithi zingavinjelwa enkantolo kahulumeni ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo seshumi nanye. Nokho, ngisho nalapho, uhulumeni ungaqinisa isivikelo somthetho ovamile ukuthi izinkantolo zikahulumeni kumelwe zihloniphe.

Izehlakalo zekilasi ezimelene nezifundazwe zibhekene nezinye izithiyo. iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yathi i - Class Action Fairness Act ayiwunqandeli uhulumeni ukuba ulwele uhulumeni, ngakho imibuso ayinakuphoqelelwa ukuba ingene enkantolo kahulumeni njengabamangalelwa besigaba.

Uhulumeni OnguMbusi Nomthetho Womphakathi: Ukulinganisela Ukulandisa Nokuphumelela

Lemfundiso ithatha ukulinganisela okubucayi. Ngakolunye uhlangothi, ukulondoloza uhulumeni okuzimele okuvikela izimali ezigciniwe ezithathelwe ukumangalelwa okuthena amandla futhi kuqinisekisa ukuthi imithombo elinganiselwe yomphakathi ayiphambukiselwa ekumangalelweni. Ibuye ihlobise isithunzi phakathi kwesimiso sikahulumeni. Ngakolunye uhlangothi, ingashiya abantu bengenalo ikhambi lokulimala okungathi sína okubangelwa ukonakala kombuso. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi le mfundiso iwukungalawuleki futhi ngokungenakulinganiswa ithinta imiphakathi elulazayo encikekile ezinkonzweni zikahulumeni.

Imizamo yezinguquko ezisezingeni likahulumeni iye yaholela ekuphangeni okukhulu ezifundeni eziningi. Ezinye izifundazwe manje azinazikho iziphazamiso zokulimaza ngokusho ukuthi itshe, kuyilapho ezinye ziye zakuqeda ngokuphelele ukuvikeleka komzimba ngenxa yezinhlobo ezithile zokufuna ukuhlongozwa, njengezingozi zezimoto ezihilela izisebenzi zikahulumeni. Nokho, akukho mbuso oye waphazamisa ngokuphelele konke ukuzivikela.

Kuhulumeni, iNkantolo Ephakeme iyaqhubeka iqinisa isisekelo sokuzivikela kokuzivikela kobusosha. Ukuthambekela, ikakhulukazi ngaphansi kweNkantolo kaRoberts, bekuwukulinganisela amandla oMkhandlu ekuvikelekeni okungalawuleki nasekunwebeni ubukhulu bemfundiso ngokwayo. Lokhu kwenza kube nzima kakhulu ukuba abaphangi bagcine amazwe enecala enkantolo kahulumeni.

Isiphetho

Imfundiso ivikela ekumangalelweni ngaphandle kwemvume yoMbuso. Kodwa ingenye yezithiyo ezibaluleke kakhulu ekumangaleleni komphakathi kohulumeni bezwe. Kusukela ekusungulweni kwayo emthetho wesiNgisi kuya ekuklameni kwayo kwanamuhla ngeSichibiyelo seshumi nanye neNkantolo Ephakeme, ivikela ekumangalelweni ngaphandle kwemvume yayo. Kodwa akunakwenzeka. Ivelanga ku-_waiser, ukugcotshwa, ex le ngxenye yentsha isudi, kanye nezinye [izindlela eziwusizo] eziwusizo zama-partiff angakwazi ukubhekisa ngokucophelela indawo engokomthetho.

Ukuqonda lemithetho akuyona nje imfundo; kuyisidingo esingokoqobo kunoma ubani ocabangela isenzo esingokomthetho ngokumelene nenhlangano ethile yombuso. Kungakhathaliseki ukuthi uveza ukugomela, ukuphulwa kwamalungelo omphakathi, noma ukuxabana ngemisebenzi, ukuba khona noma ukungabikho kokuzivikela kobukhosi kunganquma yonke inkambo yalelicala. Ngokulawula imfundiso kanye nokungahambisani nayo, abakhangisi bangasiza kangcono abathengi babo futhi bathuthukise ubulungisa ngisho naphambi kwesivikelo sobukhosi.

Ukuze ufunde ngokwengeziwe, hlola i-Cornell Information ye-odoli ye-, i-[FLT]Ukucwaninga kobuPractial Service ye-Prevenment yeshumi nanye, kanye ne- oyez ka-'isicatshulwa se-' ingxenye ye-Young [FLT]] yemininingwane.