Imfundiso engokomthetho egxile kakhulu eMthethweni waseMelika, esekelwe esimisweni sokuthi uhulumeni ophethe ngeke umangalelwe ngaphandle kwemvume yawo. Lemfundiso inemiphumela ejulile kubantu abafuna ukuba nabadlali bakahulumeni − njengamaphoyisa, onogada basejele, noma abaphathi bakahulumeni abangakwazi ukulandisa ngokuphula amalungelo abo omphakathi. Nakuba lemfundiso inikeza isivikelo esibucayi kumagugu ombuso nohulumeni, futhi iveza izithiyo eziphawulekayo kubantu abafuna ukwahlulela ngokungemthetho omthetho. Ukuqonda ukufakwa phakathi kwemithetho enqanda ukunqanda ukunqanda ukuvinjelwa kwezwe namalungelo omphakathi kubalulekile kubalulekile kudingekile kunoma ubani oweqasha noma ubani owelayo ukuba alwe nezikhundla zezindawo zikahulumeni.

Izisekelo Zokungahlangani KoMbusi Kahulumeni

Umsuka WeSichibiyelo Seshumi Nanye

Imfundiso yokugonyelwa kwesimiso sokuzivikela kombuso e-United States ilandela izimpande zayo ezingokomthetho ezingokomthetho zeSichibiyelo seshumi nanye, ezagunyazwa ngo-1795. Ukulungisa kwakuyimpendulo eqondile esinqumweni seNkantolo Ephakeme [1793] kuyi-Chjorlm v. Georgia[[, lapho iNkantolo yasekela khona ukuthi izakhamuzi zangasese zingafaka umbuso enkantolo ehlangene. Ohulumeni bathumela ngokushesha ukuvuselelwa kwemithetho ye-ogractitude kulelo lweNkanto ebusayo. ISiphendulo seshumi nanye sinikeza: “Amandla e-Ohlulweni se-United States angeke akhuliswe nakunyuselwa noma kumthetho noma ewumthetho, noma kuvinjelwe i-Empeystion. [Izi] i-Fose-Esalson ngokomthetho ophakeme we-Esambust] ivimbela i-mthetho we-Esambuse ye-Esase-ose-se-se. [esase-se-se-se-se

Imbangela Yokungahlangani KukaHulumeni

Abasekeli bokuzivikela kombuso baphikisa ngokuthi ivikela ingcebo kahulumeni ekuwohlokeni ngokuqulwa kwecala, ivumela amazwe ukuba anike imithombo ngokwezandulela zemithetho esikhundleni sezahlulelo zenkantolo. Ilondoloza futhi isithunzi nenkululeko yemibuso njengezikhulu ezilinganayo phakathi kwesimiso sikahulumeni. Ngaphandle kokuzivikela, imibuso ingaphoqelelwa ukuba ivikele emacaleni angenakubalwa, inciphise ikhono lawo lokubusa. Nokho, lokhu kuphikisana okuyisisekelo okuthi abantu bahlukunywe yizenzo ezingathiwa yiziqu - simo sikhulu esiwumbuso olinganayo kufanelwe yikhambi. Umbano phakathi kombuso nombuso namalungelo omphakathi lungakha izimo eziyinhloko zezimpi eziningi zanamuhla ezingokomthetho.

Indlela Ukungenelana Kwamalungelo Omphakathi Okuthi Kuyintandokazi Ngayo

Isithiyo Sokuxosha Ohulumeni BoMbuso Ngokuqondile

Uma amalungelo omphakathi womuntu ephulwa umdlali wezomdlalo wesizwe, ngokwesibonelo, isosha elisebenzisa amandla adlulele phakathi nokuboshwa, isu elingokwemvelo liwukumangalela inxusa likahulumeni elisebenzisa isikhulu. Nokho, ukugoma kwezikhali ezizimele ngokuvamile kubopha amasudi aqondile kuhulumeni noma izinhlangano zalo enkantolo kahulumeni. Lokhu kusho ukuthi ngisho noma ummangalelwa eye waphulwa umthetho ocacile, angase angakwazi ukubuyisa umonakalo wemali embonini yemali ngaphandle kokuba kusetshenziswe inqubo ehlukile. Lokhu kuphoqelele abamangaleli ukuba baqondise iziphakampathi zabo ezibodwayo enkantolo kahulumeni bendawo.

Izikhulu ZoMbuso Eziya Ebusweni Bazo.

Umehluko phakathi kokumangalela isikhulu sikahulumeni esikhundleni saso sombuso ngokumelene negunya laso lombuso ubucayi. Isudi elingokomthetho eliphethe igosa liyisudi elimelene nombuso ngokwawo futhi livinjelwe ukuzivikela kobukhosi. Ngokungafani, isudi yesikhulu ngasinye ifuna ukuba isikhulu esihloniphekile ngokomuntu siqu esingaphansi komthetho. Amasutu awavinjelwa yisimiso sobuso ngoba isikhulu, hhayi uhulumeni, iyiqembu elingokoqobo elinesithakazelo. Nokho, ibhuthi ngalinye livame ukubhekana nezinye izithiyo, njengesivikelo esifanelekayo, esivikela izikhulu zikahulumeni ngokokuziphatha kwazo ngaphandle kokuba zimiswe “ngokungenakubekwa umthetho. Inkundla yesimiso sombuso nesokuzivikela okufanelekayo yenza ungqimbango oluyingozi.

Indima ka - 42 U.S.C. ← 1983

Isishaya-mthetho samiswa ngo-42.C. ngo-1901 njengengxenye yoMthetho we-Civil Rights Act ka-1871 ukuze kunikezwe ikhambi likahulumeni kubantu abamalungelo abo angokomthetho-mthetho ephulwa abantu abasebenza “ngaphansi kombala womthetho.” Ingxenye ka-1934 abenzi amalungelo angaphansi komthetho kahulumeni; inikeza isizathu sokuphoqelela amalungelo aqinisekisiwe kakade ngoMthetho-sisekelo nomthetho. Nokho, iNkanto ePhakathi ePhakathi ye-1901 ibambelele ekutheni i-6346 ayiwenzi ukuzivikela kombuso ngokwayo. Quern v. , 440], 440 [42], [49])) umnyango owe-Umthetho owe-Umthetho owenziwe nge-U. Nokho, u-1901483 ilokhu ihlala isesimweni sokuvikela izikhulu ezikhundleni zawo futhi i-culo (ithe).

Isihluthulelo Esivumela Amalungelo Omphakathi Ukuba Aqhubeke

Naphezu kwesivikelo esikhulu sokuzivikela komzimba, ukuhlukana okuningi okumisiwe kuvumela ukuba amalungelo omphakathi aqhubekele phambili kubadlali bakahulumeni.

Iwaiver Evela Embusweni

Izwe lingase livume ngokuzithandela ukuquliswa icala, kanjalo lilahle ukuvinjelwa kwalo kokuzivikela kobuso. I-waiver ingavela ngolimi olucacile lwe-statory noma ngokuhlanganyela ekuziphatheni okubonisa ukuvumelana. Izifundazwe eziningi ziye zafaka i-tort iziphakamiso zokuthi ukuvikela imibandela ethile, kuhlanganise nokuphulwa kwamalungelo omphakathi, okungamelwe kuvinjelwe imingcele enjengokuqaphela izimfuneko nomonakalo. Ngokwesibonelo, i-Tort Acts Act ivumela ukuhlawunisela umbuso izenzo ezithile zezisebenzi zalo, kodwa i-raver iyimingcingo elinganiselwe kunemithetho engokomthetho elawula amalungelo abantu. U-Athoff kumelwe ahlole ngokucophelela umthetho wezwe ngokuqondile ukuba anqume uma umhlazi womthetho owe. Ngokuvamile, izinkantolo zisebenza ngokukhetha okukhulu, izinkantolo ezivumayo eziqondeni ze-reathstion, noma imithetho engayishokali kahle.

Ukukhishwa Kwenhlangano Ngaphansi Kwengxenye 5 YeSichibiyelo Seshumi Nane

IConstitution inikeza iSishaya-mthetho amandla okuphoqelela iSichibiyelo seshumi nane leSichibiyelo ngo “mthetho ofanelekile” ngaphansi kweSigaba 5. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yasekela ukuthi iSishaya-mthetho singase simelane nesimiso sokuzimela uhulumeni lapho iveza ngokucacile ukuthi iyinhloso yaso ukwenza kanjalo futhi lapho umthetho uyindlela esemthethweni yokusebenzisa amandla ahlukene ka-5. ISivumelwane [[FLT]][A]. [I-BRITY[FLTricky] v v], [2] [47], iNkakhulukazi i-Umbuso u-Umthetho u-U-U.[4], isekela i-Courtsbecreat' ye-'Isbeact [5] ngokunyenya kweNkakhulu, futhi i-Unicells Act (AML) iyavuma i-E.[5] i-E.NS.NS.[2] i-E.NS.E.NS.E.E.

Imfundiso Ewujuqu Ewubusha

Enye yezindlela ezibaluleke kakhulu zokuvikela ukuzivikela komzimba womuntu i-Ex ex Young imfundiso eqanjwe ngecala leNkantolo Ephakeme ngo 1908 . Ex parate Young[, 209 U.S. 123. Lemfundiso ivumela abantu ukuba bafune ukuthunyelelwa ukuphulwa kwemithetho engokomthetho ngokuqhubekayo. Inganekwane ingukuthi isikhulu sesikhulu sezwe esingenzi okusemthethweni sincishiswe igunya laso noma igunya laso elingokomthetho futhi ngenxa yalokho singenzeki ukuba sivumele ukukhokhwana. Ngaphansi kwemithetho engokomthetho, ivimbela ukuvinjelwa kwemithetho engokomthetho. [[FLT] Izelelwe imvume engokomthetho, noma ingekho mvume yokusetshenziswa kakhulu, noma imvume yokuvimbela ukuvinjelwa kwemithetho.

Ukuhlunga Imibuso Kahulumeni Nohulumeni Bendawo

Enye inguquko ebucayi iphakathi kohulumeni bakahulumeni bendawo nohulumeni bendawo. Monell v. Umnyango Wezinkonzo Zomphakathi , 436 U.S. 658 [1888], iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela ukuthi omasipala kanye namanye amahlelo ohulumeni bendawo “afanelwe ukubhekana nezenzo ze-1963. Izikhali eziphethe amanani ohulumeni, noma amabhodi ezikoleni zesikole ngenxa yokuthi akawona amakhosi. Kunalokho, ohulumeni bendawo bangabekwa isibopho sokuphulwa kwamalungelo omphakathi uma imiphumela yokulimala kwemithetho engokomthetho, isiko, noma (ngokuvamile kubizwa ngokuthi“ ukukhubazeka komthetho"'''." noma ukuqeqeshwa okungenamandla anele, noma [[FLT:]] iziphazalelo zesikole ngenxa yezenzo ezingafanele, kodwa abakwazi ukusabela ngokuzihluza izikhulu zedolobha ngokuzenza ngokuzenza zonke izenzo ezisobala. Izindlela ezivamile, noma eziwugunyazwe ngokuphakalelayo noma ezingoko ezingoko ezingekho iziqondiso ezivamile, lapho kunikezwa ngokuvukele, lapho kunikezwa khona ukuqeqeshwa noma

Intuthuko Yezinkantolo Zamuva Eziphakeme

Izinqumo eziningana zamuva nje zibonisa ukuthi indawo ishintshashintsha.

U-Allen Cooper (2020) no-Copyric

Ku Act. Allen v. Cooper, 140 S. Ct. 994 (2020), iNkantolo yacabangela ukuthi iNkantolo ibone ukuthi ukuvikela kobuso belungelo lokusebenza ngokusemthethweni kwenqubo yokuphula umbhali kwakunemvume eyanele yini ngaphansi kwe-Remediy Claritiation Act. Izwe laseNyakatho lisebenzise ibala elibekwe i-mephu yomkhumbi ngaphandle kwemvume. Inkantolo yacabanga ukuthi i-coultracty berobet ayisebenzi ngoba i-Congressbource yayinabon ekwanele inqubo ebanzi yokuphula umthetho ukuze ithethelele ukuvikelwa kwe-Calgate Frome 5. Isinqumo sokulawula umthetho kumelwe sishiciswe “e, futhi sibe nesilinganiso esiphezulu. Isinqumo esinemiphumela esabayo ezindaweni eziphambili, kodwa futhi sizimisele ukuba sivinjelwe noma yisiphi isikhulu seNkathi yeNkathinga lokulawula.

ITorres v. Madrid (2021) Namandla Adlulele

ku-'FORres v. Madrid, 141 S. Ct. 989 (2021), iNkantolo yakhuluma ngencazelo ye-“asizer” ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo sesine emongweni wempoqo ephakeme kakhulu yamaphoyisa. Abaphathi badubula imoto phakathi nokujaha, kodwa kamuva bafuna usizo lwezokwelapha. INkantolo yathi ukusebenzisa kwesikhulu amandla engokomzimba kuveza ukuphambana ngisho noma umcaba. Nakuba icala likhuluma ngokuyinhloko ngezinzuzo zeSichibiyelo seSine, libonisa ukuthi ibhuthini ngalinye ngaphansi kwemingcele ye-debese-intelli. Ukunquma ukubusa kwelungelo lokuzingalela. Inkantolo yandisa amalungelo ezisebenzini, ikakhulukazi, izikhulu zikamaphoyisa ezigwebeni. [FOct:]

Ezinye Izinqumo Ezibalulekile

INkantolo ibuye ikhulume ngokuzivikela kombuso emongweni wezinhlelo zikahulumeni. Isinqumo sokuvala i-Tax Board yase California v. Hyatt, 139 S. 1485 (2011), iNkantolo iqondise ukuthi igcine iHhovisi elizimeleyo kumasuntswo enkantolo asemacaleni akwamanye amazwe. [[FLT:] [12]] i-FLT] i-Foctive i-quarective eboous ebox ukuze igcine abantu abazimele emacaleni.[FLT] i-'avrevoctivervesssss', ivumela i-'igovertivestion ukuba isebenzise i-explogion.[FFoglation][5]

Izinqubo Eziwusizo Zezilwane Eziwumqemane Nezimfudu

Ngenxa yobunkimbinkimbi besimiso sokuvikela ukuvikela kobuso, abakhohlisi kumelwe basondele emalungelweni omphakathi amelene nabadlali bezwe ngokwenzuzo. Okokuqala, phawula njalo ukuthi ummangalelwa uyinto engokomthetho, isikhulu sikahulumeni esesikhundleni saso esingokomthetho, isikhulu sikahulumeni esikhundleni saso somuntu, noma uhulumeni wendawo. Impendulo inquma ukuthi yikuphi okungasetshenziswa. Okwesibili, funa ukukhululeka okulindelekile noma nini kunokwenzeka [ku- noma ngabe uyingxenye ye-Young[FLT:] [[FLT]] [i]] [lesithathu], uma intethele imfucucucu elawulayo yezimiso futhi ingenza kube nokunye ukuguquka kwesimiso. [indlela], uma izindleko zidingeka, zicabangela ukubiza izikhulu ngazinye eziphathisweni zazo zomthetho ngamunye futhi zifaka ubufakazi ukuthi zisebenza ngaphansi komthetho. Okwesine, noma ukuthi isifunda sinezinye sesenzo esingokomthetho sokuzinye. Ibhulomu, siveza ukuthi ibhulo sokuzi sesivumelwano sesivumelwano sesikhulu sesikhulu sikhona, sisesa ukuba sishintshe. [FFo

Ama-athorney kufanele futhi aqaphele izimfuneko zokuncenga ezisebenza enkantolo kahulumeni. Ukukhononda kumelwe kuveze ukuvuma okulindelekile kokukhululeka futhi kufanele kubonise ngokucacile ukuthi ummangalelwa ngamunye umangalelwe unegunya elingakanani. Ukuhluleka ukukuchaza kungaholela ekuxoshweni. Ngaphezu kwalokho, khumbula umthetho wokulinganiselwa (ngokungafani-kathathu leminyaka) kwe-63, kodwa iwashi lingaqala ngokungefani kuye ngokwesimo somonakalo. Ekugcineni, cabangela ukuthi kungenzeka ukuthi imingcele yenkantolo ikhona. Ukuvikelwa kwemithetho yenkantolo akusebenzi njalo ezinkantolo zezwe ngokwesilinganiso esifanayo nezinkantolo zombuso; amanye amazwe anezinkeleleko noma izincazelo ezihlukene. Nokho, iNkantolo ephakeme iphethe ukuthi izigebemgele zemali ingaqala ngokumelene nenkantolo ye-Preathmssss ngokungemthetho womthetho ngaphandle kwemvume yomthetho wombuso. [Flvel] [5],[5], ngokwezingangesi-70], inkantolo ingakathi inkantolo.

Isiphetho

Ukuzivikela kombuso kuhlala kuyisithiyo esikhulu kubantu abafuna ukuvuselelwa amalungelo omphakathi abawatholayo abadlali bezwe. Imfundiso, esekelwe eSichibiyelweni seshumi nanye nasemakhulu eminyaka somthetho ovamile, ivikela amagugu kahulumeni kanye nokuhlakanipha kukahulumeni, kodwa ingashiya izisulu zingenalo ikhambi. Nokho, izinqumo zamuva nje zeNkantolo Ephakeme ziyaqhubeka zihlanza lemingcele, ngezinye izikhathi zikhuphuka futhi zithathe izinga lokuvikela. Ngoba umbango owe-FOT. [FFF:], isihluthulelo sokubona ngokunakekela ngokunakekela i-Young [[FLD], [[FLD], [[FLT], [ikhulu] imfundiso, kanye nekhono lokukhomba ukukhomba phakathi nomphakathi, kanye nomphakathi ohlukene.[5]