ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nane: INsika Yobulungisa BaseMelika

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane soMthetho-sisekelo we-United States singelinye lamalungiselelo alandelayo kakhulu emlandweni wezomthetho waseMelika. Saqiniswa ngo-1868 phakathi nenkathi yokuvuselelwa kweNkathi yoBuhlanga, lokhu kulungisa ngokuyisisekelo kwalungisa ubuhlobo phakathi kukahulumeni wezwe nezwe. Saklanyelwa ukuqinisekisa ukuthi izigqila ezisanda kukhululwa nezonke abantu eUnited States zathola isivikelo esigcwele sesizwe, inqubo efanelekile, kanye nokwelashwa okulinganayo ngaphansi komthetho. Namuhla, uhulumeni uyaqhubeka uthembela eSiphendulweni se 145 njengethuluzi eliyinhloko lokuvikela amalungelo abantu ngabanye, inqubo yokulahla inkohlakalo, nokuthuthukisa ubulungisa ezindaweni ezingokomthetho. Ukuthola imfundo esemthethweni, ukuthatha umsebenzi womshado, ukufinyelela ukufinyelela ukuhlangana kwazo zonke izici zokuphila kwaseMelika.

Amalungelo Ezakhamuzi: Isisekelo Sobudoda Obungokomthetho

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane siqala ngesimemezelo esinamandla nesicacile: "Bonke abantu abazalwa e-United States, futhi abangaphansi kwegunya layo, bayizakhamuzi zase-United States naseZweni lapho behlala khona." Leli lungiselelo, elaziwa ngokuthi i-Citigationshicade Claus, ligumbuqele i-Dred Scott v. Sandford[FLT] isinqumo sango-1857, esasithi abantu bozalo lwaseAfrika ngeke babe izakhamuzi zaseMelika. Ngokumisa ubuzibulo, i-ampendmentment iqinisekisa ukuthi izakhamuzi azinakunqatshelwa ngenxa yesizwe, ubuzwe, ubulili, ubufana, ubufana, noma ezinye izici ezingezona.

Le nkulumo ibilokhu ibalulekile ezimpikiswaneni eziningi zomthetho. Ngokwesibonelo, uhulumeni uye wayisebenzisa ukuqinisekisa ukuthi abantwana abazalelwe e-U.S. kubazali abangezona izakhamuzi banelungelo lokuba isakhamuzi. Ivimbela futhi ukuba bakhe izincazelo zabo siqu zesizwe ezingahlukanisa amaqembu athile. Izenzwe, iSizwe uClause siqinisekisa ukuthi wonke umuntu ozalwe e-United States unelungelo elingokomthetho, kanye nayo yonke imithwalo yemfanelo ehlanganisa ilungelo lesizwe, kuhlanganise nelungelo lokuvota, ukuthatha isikhundla somphakathi, kanye nezinzuzo zikahulumeni.

Ukuzenza Imvelo Nezakhamuzi Ezilinganayo

Ngaphezu kobuzibulo, ukulungisa futhi kuhambisana nokumiswa kwemvelo. Umphakathi unamandla okumisa imithetho efanayo yokuzisebenzela, futhi iSichibiyelo seshumi nane siqinisekisa ukuthi uma umuntu eseyisiza esingokwemvelo, ujabulela amalungelo afanayo nezakhamuzi zomdabu. Lokhu kuye kwadingeka ekulweni nokucwaswa kwemiphakathi yabafuduki. Izinkantolo ziye zakholelwa ngokungaguquguquki ukuthi amazwe awakwazi ukubeka izimfuneko noma imithwalo efanayo ezakhamuzini ezingokwemvelo ezingasebenzisi ezakhamuzini ezizalelwa emvelweni. Uhulumeni usebenzisa lesi simiso ekuvikeleni imizamo yokwakha isigaba sesibili sezakhamuzi ezisekelwe ezweni lomuntu elivela kulo noma enqubwebweni abahlala kulo.

Inqubo Elindelekile KaClaus: Ukuvikela Ubuqotho Ekuqhubekeni Okungokomthetho

I-Gast Procession Clause yeSichibiyelo se-14th imemezela ukuthi akukho mbuso ozo "kukhipha noma yimuphi umuntu wokuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho." Lomusho owodwa unesilinganiso esikhulu. Kudinga ukuba zonke izenzo zikahulumeni ezithinta amalungelo omuntu ayisisekelo zifezwe ngezinqubo ezilungile. Isigqebhezana sinezilinganiso ezimbili ezihlukene: inqubo efanelekile nenqubo efanelekile.

Inqubo ejwayelekile

Inqubo efanelekile engokwenqubo engokomthetho igxila ekwahluleleni okulungile. Iqinisekisa ukuthi abantu bathola isaziso nganoma isiphi isenzo esingokomthetho esimelene nabo, banethuba lokuzwakala, futhi banganikeza ubufakazi nezimpikiswano phambi komenzi wesinqumo ongakhethi. Uhulumeni uncike kulesimiso ezimisweni ezingenakubalwa, kuhlanganise nokuqulwa kwecala, ukuqulwa kwamacala okuphatha, nokuqulwa kwecala enkantolo yomkhaya. Ngokwesibonelo, ngaphambi kokuba uhulumeni uqede amalungelo abazali, kumelwe unikeze umzali ukuzwa okulungile. Ngokufanayo, ngaphambi kokuba uhulumeni athathe impahla yothile endaweni ephakeme, kumelwe anikeze imbuyiselo kanye nethuba elibalulekile lokuthatha inselele.

Izenzakalo eziphawula izwe njenge Goldberg v. Kelly (1970) inqubo efanelekile ekhulisweyo yesivikelo kubamukeli benhlala- kahle, iphethe ukuthi uhulumeni akanakuziqeda izinzuzo ngaphandle kokuzwa kwangaphambi kwesikhathi. Lesisinqumo saqaphela ukuthi ukulahlekelwa kwezinzuzo zezenhlalakahle kungalimaza ikhono lomuntu lokusinda, ukwenza izinqubo ezilungile. Namuhla, inqubo ebekelwe isisekelo esifanelekile iyitshe lomthetho wokulawula, iqondise indlela izinhlangano ezisebenzelana ngayo nezakhamuzi.

Inqubo Engeyona Inkinga

Inqubo efanelekile eyisisekelo idlulela ngalé kwenqubo yokuvikela amalungelo athile ayisisekelo ekungeneleni kukahulumeni, ngisho noma kunikezwa izinqubo ezilungile. Lesi sici sale nkulumo siye saphikisana kakhulu kodwa saba nethonya elifanayo. Izinkantolo ziye zasebenzisa inqubo efanelekile ehlobene nomshado, ubuhlobo bomkhaya, ukuzimela komzimba, kanye nelungelo lomuntu siqu. Uhulumeni kumelwe abonise isizathu esiphoqelelayo ngaphambi kokuba aphule lamalungelo ayisisekelo.

Izibonelo eziphawulekayo zihlanganisa [[FLT: 0] ukuphuma v. Virginia (1967), eyamisa imithetho evimbela ukuganana kwezinhlanga, futhi obergefell v. Hodges (2020], eqaphela ilungelo lemibhangqwana efanayo ukuba ishade. Roee.v [FFF:]]

Isivikelo SikaClaus Esilinganayo: Ukulindela Bonke Ukuba Neqiniso

I-Umeal Protection Claus inikeza umthetho wokuthi akukho mbuso ozothi "awumela noma ubani ophakathi kwegunya lawo ukuvikela okufanayo kwemithetho." Leli lungiselelo liyisisekelo somthetho-sisekelo sokulwa nobandlululo. Kudinga ukuba abantu ngokufanayo abasendaweni efanayo baphathwe ngokufanayo, futhi uhulumeni unikeza ithuluzi elinamandla lokubekela imithetho nemikhuba edala ukuhlukanisa okuzenzekelayo noma okungathandeki. I-Ecult Protection Claus ibe semqoka kuwo wonke amalungelo esizwe ayinhloko entuthuko eUnited States kusukela ekusungulweni kwe-Conficiatemporation.

Uhlanga Nokucwaswa

Ukusetshenziswa okukhulu kophawu lokuvikela u-Expandect Claus kusemongweni wobandlululo lobuhlanga. Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo [1954] [186]) yamemezela ukuthi ukuhlukaniswa kwezinhlanga ezikoleni zomphakathi kwakungenakulingani, kwakuphula umthetho we-galelo. Lokhu kuqeda "ukuhlukanisa kodwa kuyalingana" imfundiso esungulwe Plesty v. Ferguson (1866) futhi kwamisa isigaba sokususa u-Jirrow kuqhubekela uhulumeni. Uhulumeni, ikakhulukazi uMnyango wokwahlulela, uye wasebenzisa i-Active quectal Clausstion ukuphoneaise isikole, inselaye yeze yeze yeze i-parpal, izinhlelo zeze zeze zeze i-pane, futhi umkhankaso zeze uhulumeni wamuva ekuthole inzuzo yamuva.

Eminyakeni yamuva kakhulu, i-Uncimence Protection Claus iye yasetshenziswa ekusingatheni izindaba ezinjengokuphoqelela ubandlululo ngokohlanga ngokugcinwa komthetho, ukwahlukana esimisweni sokwahlulela kobugebengu, namalungelo okuvota. Uhulumeni ungamangalela imithetho yokuthi ukumisa imithetho ngenjongo yobandlululo noma ephethe ubandlululo olungenabulungisa. Ngaleyondlela lombhalo usebenza kokubili njengenkemba nesihlangu: uvikela abantu ekucwaseni nasekunikezeni uhulumeni amandla okulungisa ukungalingani kwezimiso.

Ulimi Nezinye Izigaba Ezivikelwe

I-Unime Protection Claus ayipheleli ehlazweni. Izinkantolo ziye zandisa isivikelo sazo ekuhlukaniseni okusekelwe ebulilini, ebulinganini, nakwezinye izici. Reed v. Reed1] [187], iNkantolo Ephakeme yawisa umthetho owanikeza amadoda isilinganiso sokukhethwa kwabaphathi bezindawo. INkantolo yasekela ukuthi ukuhlukanisa kwabesilisa ngokwezimiso zezezangaphakathi kwaphula i-Expression Clausle. Izehlakalo ezithiwe njenge- Craig v. Boren[FLT:][3] [18]] [6] isungula indinga yokucusumbula okuphakathi kokuhlelwa kwezindawo ezikhulelwa ubulili obufanayo, okusho ukuthi uhulumeni uhulumeni ufeza inzuzo enkulu futhi uhlohlose isithakazelo esikhulu.

Izimo zokucwasa ziye zakhuluma ngazo zonke izinto kusukela emikhubeni yemisebenzi kuya emathubeni emfundo. United States v. Virginia [1966], ngokwesibonelo, isinqumo safuna iVirginia Military Institute ukuba ivume abesifazane, iphethe ukuthi umbuso awunakuthethelela ukukhishwa kwabesifazane ekolishini lezempi. I-Octal Protection Claus isetshenziselwa ukubekela inselele ukucwaswa kwe-LBTQ+ abantu ngabanye, njengoba kuboniswa ezindabeni eziphathelene nemisebenzi, izindlu, nezindawo zomphakathi. Nakuba izinga lokuhlola kokwahlulela lingahluka, isilinganiso sinikeza uhlelo oluvumelanayo lokusingatha izinhlobo ezintsha zokucwasana lapho kuphakama.

Ukucwaninga Okuqinile Ne - Intermediate Scrutiny

Ukuze iqonde ukuthi izinkantolo zisebenzisa kanjani i-Uncimel Protection Clause, kuwusizo ukwazi izindinganiso zokubukeza. Uma umthetho ubhekene nesigaba esisolekayo njengohlanga noma imvelaphi yesizwe, izinkantolo zisebenzisa ukucubungula okuqinile. Lokhu kusho ukuthi umthetho kumelwe uhlotshaniswe ngokulinganiselwe ukuze unikeze isithakazelo sikahulumeni esiphoqelelwe, futhi uhulumeni unomthwalo wokuyifaka isiqiniseko. Imithetho eminingi edinga ukuhlolwa ngokunemba ihlazelelwa. Izehlolo ezinhlolweni ezithiwayo njengezesi, izinkantolo zisebenzisa ukucubunga izibalo eziphakathi.

Imfundiso Yokuvumelana: Ukusebenzisa Isiqinisekiso Samalungelo Kahulumeni

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane seSichibiyelo seMinyaka Ene sifeza indima ebalulekile futhi ngemfundiso ehlanganisiwe. Ekuqaleni, iBhill of Rights yasebenza kuhulumeni kahulumeni. Lokhu kwasho ukuthi uhulumeni ungaphazamisa inkululeko yomuntu yokukhuluma noma yenkolo ngaphandle kokulawulwa uMthetho-sisekelo. ISichibiyelo se-14th sishintshile. INkantolo Ephakeme iphethe ukuthi i-Sect Procement Claus ihlanganisa amalungiselelo amaningi eSivumelwaneni samalungelo abantu, iwenza aqiniswe ngokuphoqelelwa ezindaweni ezithile. Lokhu kuhlanganisa iZiphendulo Zokuqala zenkululeko yokukhuluma, inkolo, isonto, ingqungquthela, nesicelo; iSiphendumiso sesine sokuphenduphenduka okungaqinisiwe; iSiphendumiso sokukhuhla Sesihlanu ekumelani ukuzithwaneni okungakhokhwasa umlomo nokungathwa; iSigalelo sesithupha sokulunga sokulunga sokulunga sokulunga nokuqulwa; isigwebo sokulunga sokulunga nokuqungathwa kobulungisa; i-8 i-Hendeth sisekelo.

Imfundiso ehlanganisiwe iqinisekisa ukuthi ohulumeni bakahulumeni babambelele ezindinganisweni ezingokomthetho-mthetho ezifana nezasehulumeni. Lapho umnyango wamaphoyisa kahulumeni uhlola ngokungemthetho, noma inkantolo kahulumeni iphika ummangalelwa, iSichibiyelo seshumi nane sinikeza izinkantolo igunya lokungenela. Lokhu kuye kwadingeka ukuze kugcinwe isisekelo esiqinile senkululeko yomphakathi kuzo zonke izifunda ezingamashumi amahlanu. Ngaphandle kokufakwa, amazwe angamisa imithetho elulaza amalungelo ayisisekelo, akha umsebenzi owenziwe ngengxenye yesivikelo lapho amanye amaMelika ejabulela khona amalungelo amancane kakhulu kunamanye.

Ithonya Elingokomthetho Namacala Avelele

Njengoba kuphawuliwe, amacala amaningi abaluleke kakhulu eNkantolo Ephakeme emlandweni waseMelika aye ahilela iSichibiyelo seshumi nane. Lezi zinqumo ezilandelayo zimbalwa ezibucayi ezibonisa ithonya lale miphumela ebulungisani:

  • Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1954): INkantolo yathi ukuhlukaniswa ngokohlanga ezikoleni zomphakathi kwaphula iSivikelo sikaClaus esilinganayo, kwagumbuqela imfundiso "yohlukene kodwa elinganayo". Lesi sinqumo sasiyinkathi yokushintsha emzabalazweni wamalungelo abantu futhi saholela ekuncishisweni kwezikole kulo lonke izwe.
  • i-Offding v. Virginia (1967): INkantolo yalahla imithetho kahulumeni evimbela ukuhlangana kwezinhlanga, isho ukuthi lemithetho iphula kokubili i-Claus Programme ne-Exctal Provice Claus. Lesisinqumo saqinisekisa ilungelo eliyisisekelo lokushada ngaphandle kohlanga.
  • Roe v. Wade (1973]): INkantolo yaqaphela ukuthi iClaus olandelwayo uvikela ilungelo lowesifazane lokukhetha ukukhipha isisu, nakuba lesisinqumo kamuva sabekwa umthetho owenziwe eDobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization (2022).
  • Obergefell v. Hodges (2015): INkantolo yathi imibhangqwana engokobulili obufanayo inelungelo eliyisisekelo lokushada ngaphansi kweNkathi Emisiweyo ka-Claus noMvikeli olinganayo ka-Claus. Lesi sinqumo sagunyaza umshado ongowesilisa esixhunyiwe ezweni lonke.
  • Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): INkantolo yathi iSichibiyelo seSitanhatu segunya lokululeka sisebenza ezizweni nge-Celassias of the Industry Reference. Lokhu kusho ukuthi kumelwe kunikeze ummeli kubamangalelwa ongakwazi ukukhokhela omunye emacaleni obugebengu.
  • Miranda v. Arizona (1966): INkantolo yamisa izixwayiso ezidumile zeMiranda, iphethe ukuthi isichibiyelo sesihlanu esimelene nokuziphindisela sifakwa ngeSichibiyelo seshumi nane. Amaphoyisa kumelwe azise amalungelo awo ngaphambi kokuphenywa kwelungelo.

Lamacala, kanye namanye amaningi, abonisa ukuvumelana kweSichibiyelo seshumi nane nokubaluleka okuhlala njalo. Uhulumeni uyaqhubeka enxusa ukushintshwa kwemvume yokuvikela amalungelo okuvota, ukunqanda ukushushumbisa kwabantu, ukunikeza amaphoyisa inkulumo engafanele, nokuthola imfundo nomsebenzi ngokulinganayo.

Izinqubo ZeSichibiyelo Seshumi Nane

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane asiyona into yesikhathi esidlule. Siseyingxenye eqinile nesebenzayo yomthetho - sisekelo waseMelika. Eminyakeni yamuva, uhulumeni uye wasebenzisa lesi singuquko ekuxazululeni izindaba ezihlanganisa:

  • Ukuvuna Amalungelo: Isivikelo esilinganayo u-Claus siye sasetshenziselwa ukubekela inselele imithetho ye-ID, ukuphatha, nezinye izinyathelo ezithwesa abavoti abambalwa umthwalo ngokungenakulinganiswa. Izinkantolo ziye zalinganisela isithakazelo sikahulumeni ekukhetheni nelungelo eliyisisekelo lokuvota, ngokuvamile zithola ukuthi imithetho yezecapa iphula umthetho onqanda ukuguqulwa kwemithetho.
  • Inguquko ePhakeme yomthetho : I-Accom Process Claus ne Protection Auncime Claus ibaluleke kakhulu emizamweni yokuguqula ukuphatha i-apply, inqubo yebheyili, nesigwebo. Izinkulumo zobandlululo ezithi ukucwasa ngokwezimo zezimoto, amandla adlulele, nokusetshenziswa okungalingani kwesigwebo sokufa zivame ukubiza iSichibiyelo se-Gajimende seshumi nane.
  • LBTQ+ Amalungelo: Ukwakha iObergefell nezinye izenzakalo, abameleli nohulumeni bayaqhubeka besebenzisa iSichibiyelo seshumi nane ukubekela inselele ubandlululo olusekelwe ekubukekeni kobulili nasobulilini ezindaweni ezinjengomsebenzi, indlu, ukunakekelwa kwempilo, nezindawo zomphakathi.
  • IJaji lezezimali: Nakuba iNkantolo ibiqaphile ngokusebenzisa iSikhungo esilinganayo uClaus ekubhekaneni nokungalingani kwezomnotho, inguquko iye yacelwa emacaleni ahilela ukufinyelela izinzuzo zomphakathi, ukuxhasa imfundo, nezindlu ezibiza imali eshibhile. Isisekelo esinengqondo sisebenza kakhulu, kodwa izinhlobonhlobo ezingafani zingabekelwa inselele.
  • Ukuhlanganisa: I-Citizenshishishini Claus ibiyindaba yempikiswano enzima, kanye nokuphikisana ngemithetho yayo evimbelayo. Uhulumeni uye wavikela ubuzibulo njengengxenye eyinhloko yegama laseMelika, futhi izinkantolo ziye zabusekela ngokungaguquki. I-STS Procesme Clause ivikela futhi abafuduki, kuhlanganise nalabo abangenaso isikhundla esingokomthetho, ekuboshweni nasekususweni okungokomthetho.

ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nane Namandla Kahulumeni

IsiHlumulo seshumi nane sinikeza futhi igunya lokumisa amalungiselelo aso ngo "mthetho ofanelekile". Leligunya lokuqinisekisa, elitholakala eCandelo 5 lenguquko, liye lasetshenziselwa ukudlulisa imithetho kahulumeni ewuphawu, kuhlanganise ne Convil Rights Act ka-1964. Lemithetho ivumela uhulumeni ukuba ususe izigaba namaqembu azimele, ukumisa izinhlangano zokuphatha ukuhlola izikhalo, nokunikeza izisulu. [FLT:] [[FLT]], kanye noMthetho we-Falton: [FLT] [FLT] [FOLT] [12].[FLT] [12] [5].[FLT] Umthetho ophakeme].[FLT].[FLT] Imithetho ivumela uhulumeni ukuba ulwele izikhungo oluqinile, futhi ivikelwe izigwebo ezigunyaza izinyuko zemithetho ezigunyaza izinyuko ezisemthethweni ezisemthethweni ezithelwe yigunyaziwe kakhulu. [i, ize izikhulu]

Isiphetho: Umsebenzi Wobulungisa Ongachithwanga

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane singesona nje isiqinisekiso esingokomlando. Siyisithembiso esiphilayo, esiphefumulayo sokuthi uhulumeni uyophatha wonke umuntu ngesithunzi, ngokungakhethi, nangokulingana. Kusukela ekuqalekeni kwakhe ngemva kokugqilazwa kwezicelo zaso zobugqila zanamuhla ekulweni kwe LGBTQ + amalungelo nokuvota, ukuguqulwa komthetho kusebenze njengesisekelo sokwandiswa okuhlala njalo kwesigaba esinesikhathi eside sokungena. Nokho, umsebenzi wobulungisa awusoze waphela. Izinselele ezintsha zivela ezizukulwaneni zonke, futhi iSiphendulo se 14th sinikeza amathuluzi okungokomthetho ukuze zihlangane nazo. Njengoba uhulumeni uyaqhubeka uchaza futhi usebenzisa le nqubo, kusenamandla okuqinisekisa ukuthi ubulungisa abusona nje isici esingcono kodwa esingokoqobo kubo bonke abantu baseMelika.