Imfundiso Yokuziphendukela Kwemvelo Eyashintsha Ukukhululeka Kwabantu BaseMelika

Kuwo wonke umlando wezomthetho waseMelika, zimbalwa izimiso eziye zaba nethonya elinamandla kakhulu ekuvikeleni amalungelo omuntu ngamunye kunemfundiso yokufakwa. Lenqubo yomthetho-sisekelo, esekelwe eSichibiyelweni seshumi nane, ngokuyisisekelo iye yalungisa ubuhlobo phakathi kohulumeni bakahulumeni bezwe nenkululeko eqinisekiswe yiSivumelwano samaLungelo. Kulabo abasekela inkululeko yomphakathi, ukuqonda ukuhlanganiswa kwenkululeko yamalungelo abantu kubalulekile ngoba inikeza isisekelo esingokomthetho sokuphikiswa kwesilinganiso sombuso okuwukwephula ezivikelo eziyisisekelo ezisekelweni ezisekelwe eMthethweni.

Ngaphambi kokufakwa, iBill of Rights yasebenza kuhulumeni kahulumeni kuphela, ishiya izifunda zikhululekile kakhulu ukuvimbela inkulumo, ukwenza ukuphenya okungenangqondo, noma ukuphika inqubo efanelekile. Imfundiso yokuhlanganisa yashintsha konke lokho ngokwenza iSigqi Samalungelo Aphothiwe kakhulu ngokuphoqelelwa kohulumeni bendawo. Lokhu kuguqulwa akwenzekanga ngokuphazima kweso; kwavela ngochungechunge lwezinqumo zengqopha - mlando zeNkantolo Ephakeme ehlanganisa ingxenye enkulu yekhulu lama-20. Umphumela uyindawo engokomthetho lapho amalungelo ayisisekelo evikeleke khona ngokulingana kakhulu kuwo wonke amaqembu angamashumi amahlanu.

Isisekelo Somthetho - sisekelo Sokungavumelani

Isisekelo esingokomthetho sokufakwa siseSichibiyelweni seshumi nane, esagunyazwa ngo-1868. IMbengo Yaso yoMcimbi ka-Claus usho ukuthi akukho mbuso "ongakho umuntu wokuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho" Emashumini amaningi eminyaka, izazi namajaji babephikisana ngokuthi lo mbhalo wawuhloselwe ukusebenzisa wonke uBill of Rights ezindaweni (ukufakwa okuphelele) noma lawomalungelo athathwa ngokuthi "umthetho wokuzikhethela" (ukukhetha).

INkantolo Ephakeme ekugcineni yamukela ukuhlanganiswa ngokukhetha, ukusebenzisa amalungelo ngesikhathi esinye ngesisekelo secala ngalinye. Ukuhlolwa ukuthi ilungelo lihlanganisiwe kubuza ukuthi "lisekelwe emqondweni wenkululeko egunyaziwe" noma" lisekelwe ngokujulile emlandweni namasiko alesi sizwe" lendlela iye yavumela iNkantolo ukuba yandise isivikelo kancane kancane kuyilapho ihlonipha ubuzwe nenkululeko yombuso.

IJaji Benjamin Cardozo lachaza indinganiso eyisisekelo ku- Palko v. Connecticut[[FL:1] (1937]), lichaza ukuthi amanye amalungelo abaluleke kakhulu kangangokuba ukuphulwa kwawo kwakungaba "ukungavumelani nenkululeko eyisisekelo engokombono wenkululeko emisiwe" lesi simiso esiqondiswe amashumi eminyaka ezinqumo zokuhlanganisa futhi sisanethonya namuhla.

Indima yeSichibiyelo seshumi nane seNkathi ka-Claus eUlandelelwayo

I-Guas Procession Claus yeSichibiyelo seshumi nane leMinyaka Eyishumi nane isebenza njengemoto lapho iNkantolo Ephakeme isebenzisa khona iMibango yamaLungelo evikela izifundazwe. Ulimi lukaClaus("""nanoma yimuphi uMbuso uyoncisha noma imuphi umuntu ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho""" ichazwa njengendlela yokufaka lawomalungelo abalulekile ukuze kukhululwe futhi kumiswe ubulungisa. Le ncazelo ayizange isebenzise izivikelo eziningi zenkululeko yamalungelo abantu abamele ukuvikelwa kweSichibiyelo seshumi Nesine. Nokho, izinqumo zeNkanto enziwa iqinisekisa njalo ukuthi i-igegoverse.

Ukuthuthuka Komlando Kokuvumelana

Ngekhulu lokuqala ngaphansi koMthetho-sisekelo, iBill of Rights yasebenza kuhulumeni kahulumeni kuphela. INkantolo Ephakeme yakuqinisekisa lokhu ku- Barron v. Baltimore (1833), lapho uMahluleli omkhulu uJohn Marshall ayekholelwa ukuthi iSichibiyelo sesihlanu sasingasebenza khona. Lokhu kulinganiselwa kwakusho ukuthi izifunda zingamelana, futhi zivame ukwenza, ziphikisa, zilahla lokho manje esikubheka njengamalungelo ayisisekelo, inkululeko engokwenkolo, nesivikelo ekufuneni okungenangqondo.

Ukuhlaziywa kweSichibiyelo Seshumi Nane ngo - 1868 kwaveza amathuba amasha, kodwa ekuqaleni iNkantolo yayimanqikanqika ukuyisebenzisa ukuze iphoqelele iBhili Lamalungelo emelene nemibuso. kwaze kwaba sekuqaleni kwekhulu lama - 20 lapho imfundiso yokuhlanganiswa kwamazwe yaqala khona ukusungulwa.

ISiphakamiso Sokuqala: Gitlow v. eNew York (1925)

Icala elivelele elavula umnyango wokumisa uhulumeni kwakuyi- Gitlow v. New York [1925]. UBenjamin Gitlow wayengumshisekeli wezentengiselwano wezentengiselwano wakwaNew York owayeboshelwe ngaphansi kwesiphithiphithi somthetho sobugebengu ngenxa yokukhipha isimemezelo sokukhishwa kukahulumeni. UGitsow waphikisa ukuthi imvume yakhe yephula iSichibiyelo sakhe sokuQonda ekwayo ekukhululweni kwenkululeko. INkantolo Ephakeme yaqinisekisa ukuqiniseka kwakhe, ukuthola ukuthi i-dvoccy ayimelelwanga inkulumo, kodwa ekumangalelweni kweNkanto ebekwe engokomthetho yeSikhamu seNkathi sezenziso somthetho senza isimezo esivelele: "ngoba manje futhi sithatha iziphakaliso zenkululeko senkulumo kanye nezokunyathelisa eziqashelwayo kuqala ngokukhipha imvume yokukhipha ngokukhipha imvume yokuqala yeSikhathi seSikhathi sokuqala.

Nakuba uGitlow alahlekelwa icala lakhe, isimiso somthetho asimisa savula indlela amashumi amaningi eminyaka yokunqoba inkululeko yomphakathi. Icala labonisa ukuthi isiHlanzo sokuQhubela sokuqala sokukhululeka kokukhuluma, okwake kwaba isihlangu sokumelana nezicukuthwane zikahulumeni, manje sasingasetshenziswa kuhulumeni nasezindaweni.

I-Corporation Dakes Hover: 1930s-1960s

Ngemva , iGitlow, iNkantolo kancane kancane yahlanganisa iSivikelo samaLungelo seMilingo. Nearbb v. Minnesota [1931], iNkantolo yahlanganisa inkululeko yokunyathelisa, ukushaya umthetho wezwe ovumela ukuvinjelwa kwezincwadi. [FLT:] [FLT:] 4] DEMBONE v. [197] [197]) yahlanganisa ilungelo lomhlangano onokuthula. .Connectic .[FLT] v[FL:] [12:] [1940]

I-1960, ngaphansi kweSikhulu seJaji Earl Warren, yabona ukwanda okuphawulekayo kokufakwa kwayo. INkantolo yaseWarren yayisebenza ngokukhethekile ekusebenziseni inqubo yobugebengu ezifundazweni. Mapp v. Ohio [1961]) yafaka umthetho weSine Wesimemezelo sokuzikhulula, ifuna ukuba izinkantolo zikahulumeni zikhiphe ubufakazi obutholakala ekuphenyezeni okungenangqondo nasekudumazekeni. [FLT] Gedeon v. Wainright[[[FLT:] [1963]] wag [1963] wafaka izixwayiso ezingenisweni zeSixwe seSixwemu kwesokudla sokukhipha iziluleko, isiqinisekiso sokuthi abamangali bezwe yi-ograngeyletu, i-Mirne.[F][F]

Ezinye izinto ezibalulekile zahlanganisa Klopefer v. Nyakatho Carolina (1967) nelungelo lokuqulwa ngokushesha, Duncan v.Louisiana (1968) nelungelo lokuqulwa kwecala emacala obugebengu angathi sína, futhi Bhenv. Maryland (1709) ukuze kuvikelwe izingozi eziphindwe kabili.

Izindaba Eziyinhloko Ezathonya Imfundiso Yokungavumelani

Ukuqonda amacala avelele akha imfundiso ehlanganisayo kubalulekile kunoma yiziphi izisekelo zenkululeko yomphakathi.

Amalungelo Okuqala ESichibiyelo

  • Gitrow v. New York (1925) - Inkulumo ekhululekile isetshenziswa ezizweni
  • Near v. Minnesota (1931)[[FL:1] – Inkululeko yomhleli ifakiwe
  • De Jonge v. Oregon (1937)[[FL:1] – Isokudla komhlangano kufakiwe
  • Cantwell v. Connecticut (1940) - Ukusetshenziswa kwenkolo mahhala kuyasetshenziswa
  • Everson v. Board of Education (1947) – Ukumiswa kuka-Claus kufakiwe

ISichibiyelo Sesine Samalungelo

  • Mapp v.O.1961) – Umthetho we-Exclussion
  • Wolf v. Colorado (1949) - Ukusesha okulinganiselwe kanye nokuquleka kusetshenziswa kahle

ISichibiyelo Sesihlanu Samalungelo

  • Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad v. Chicago (1897) – Ukuthatha u-Claus kuyasetshenziswa
  • Malloy v. Hogan (1964) – Ilungelo elimelene nokuzihlukanisa lisetshenziswe
  • Benton v. Maryland (11969) – Isivikelo sengozi esiphindwe kabili sasetshenziswa

ISichibiyelo Sesithupha Samalungelo

  • Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) - kwesokudla sokuyalwa kusetshenziswa
  • Pointer v. Texas (1965) - Isokudla ukubhekana nofakazi abafakiwe
  • Klopefer v. North Carolina (1967) - Ekunene ekuzameni okusheshayo kusetshenziswe
  • Duncan v. Louisiana (1968) - Isokudla enkantolo yokuhlulela

ISichibiyelo Sesishiyagalombili

  • Robinson v. California (62) - Isijeziso esingavamile esisetshenziswayo

Ithonya Lemfundiso Ekwamukelweni Kwenkululeko Yangaphakathi

Imfundiso yokuhlanganisa iye yaba ithuluzi elinamandla kubasekeli benkululeko yomphakathi, inikeza isisekelo esingokomthetho sokubekela inselele imithetho yezwe nezenzo eziphula amalungelo omthetho. Ngaphambi kokufakwa, abameleli kwakumelwe bathembele ngokuyinhloko kumthetho-sisekelo wombuso nasezinkantolo zikahulumeni, ngokuvamile ezinikeza isivikelo esibuthakathaka. Ukuqanjwa kwakha isisekelo sombuso samalungelo okufanele wonke amazwe ahloniphe, ukuqinisekisa ukuthi isakhamuzi saseMississippi sijabulela iSiphetho sesine esifanayo njengesakhamuzi saseMassachusetts.

Lokhu kufana kuye kwabonakala kugxeka ezindaweni eziningi. Endaweni yobulungisa bobugebengu, ukuhlanganiswa kwezwe kuye kwaphoqelela ukuba kunikeze abameli abamangalelwa, kukhiphe ubufakazi obungekho emthethweni, futhi kunikeze izixwayiso ezicacile ngelungelo lokuthula. Endaweni yokukhuluma ngokukhululekile, ukuhlanganisa kuye kwavumela izinhlangano zenkululeko zomphakathi ukuba ziphikise imithetho yomthetho yokuhlola nokuvikela amazwi aphikisayo. Inkululeko engokwenkolo, ukuhlanganisa ikwenza kube nezinselele zokumisa imithetho evumela inkolo eyodwa ukuba ithule noma ikhandle inkululeko yokusebenzisa inkolo ngenkululeko.

Izinhlangano ezifana ne-American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) ne-Centre for Constitutional Rights, ihlanganisa izikhali zomthetho-sisekelo ukuze zilethe amacala ngokuqondile enkantolo kahulumeni ngaphansi kuka-42 U.S.C., umthetho ovumela abantu ukuba bamangalelwe izikhulu zikahulumeni ngenxa yokuphulwa komthetho-mthetho-sisekelo. Lenqubo iye yasetshenziswa ezimpini ezisusa amacala esizwe, amalungelo eziboshwa, nezinselele zokuhlola izinhlelo.

Ukunika Igunya Imvume Kahulumeni

Ukuhlobanisa futhi kuye kwanika abasekeli abasebenzela ezingeni lombuso. Ngenxa yokuthi i-Bill of Rights efakiwe ibeka indinganiso elinganiselwe, izifunda zingaqhubeka ekuvikeleni amalungelo ngaphansi komthetho-sisekelo wazo. Izinkantolo eziningi eziphezulu ziye zachaza imithetho-mthetho yazo ukuze zinikeze isivikelo esikhulu kune-bupolitical Bill of Rights .a umkhuba owaziwa ngokuthi "umthetho omusha wokwahlulela." Ngaleyondlela-i-Incorporation idala isimiso esinezingadibini: indawo ephezulu yamalungelo nethuba lokuthuthukisa isivikelo sikahulumeni. Abameli bangakhetha ngokusemthethweni ukuphishekela imibandela engokomthetho engaphansi kombuso noma ngaphansi kombuso, kuye ngokuthi inikeza izikhuselo eziqinile.

Ukuqinisa Ukuphatha Kokwahlulela

Imfundiso ehlanganisiwe iye yandisa ngokuphawulekayo ukuqondisa komthetho kahulumeni wezenzo zikahulumeni. Izinkantolo ze-Federal manje zihlola njalo izinqubo zobugebengu zikahulumeni, imithetho yombuso elawula inkululeko engokwenkolo, nezenzo zikahulumeni ezithinta inkululeko yombuso. Lokhu kuqondisa kuye kwenza ohulumeni bezwe balandisa ngokwengeziwe kuMthetho-sisekelo futhi kuye kwasiza ekususeni imikhuba ephula amalungelo ayisisekelo. Ikhono lokuletha amacala enkantolo kahulumeni, nesivikelo sawo esizimele nesezingeni eliphezulu, kuye kwaba yinzuzo enkulu kakhulu kubameleli benkululeko yomphakathi.

Nokho, lokhu kuqondisa okunwetshiwe nakho kuye kwabangela inselele. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi ukuhlanganisa ukukhucululwa kwemithetho kahulumeni futhi kuvumela amajaji kahulumeni ukuba akhethe izigigaba zikahulumeni. Abanye abahluleli, ngokuphawulekayo uClarence Thomas, baye babuza imfundiso ekhethayo ngokwayo, bephikisa ukubuyela ekuqondeni kwasekuqaleni ukuthi iBill of Rights ayisebenzi ezindaweni ezithile. Naphezu kwalokhu kuhlanganisa, ukuhlanganisa kuhlala kuhlelilendlela futhi kwamukelwa kakhulu umphakathi ongokomthetho.

Amalungelo Angenazo Izizathu Nekusasa Lokungavumelani

Nakuba iningi leMithetho yeSiphetho seSigqi seSigqizo samaLungelo seSigqizo seNkxaso seSithathu lingafakwanga, amaphakethe ambalwa asasetshenziswa. ISichibiyelo sesithathu esimelene namasosha athatha ikota asizange sisetshenziswe ezifundazweni, nakuba lokhu kungenxa yokuthi ilungelo lokuvela kwe-Gawulayo lesihlanu. Ilungelo leSichibiyelo lokudlulisela isigwebo sejaji lesihlanu alizange lifakwe, futhi amazwe ahlala ekhululekile ukusebenzisa ezinye izindlela zokulawula njengezandulela noma ulwazi. ISiphendulo seSichibiyelo se-8 asizange sifakwe ngokwemithetho esemthethweni, nakuba iNkanto ehlobene nesivikelo esingeyo nge-Creal Claus.

ISichibiyelo Sesibili saphakamisa umbuzo ophikiswa kakhulu. Emashumini amaningi eminyaka, iNkantolo Ephakeme yayinganqumanga ukuthi ilungelo lokugcina nokuphatha izikhali lisetshenziswa yini ezifundazweni. Lokho kwashintsha McDonald v. Chicago[ [2010], lapho iNkantolo ifaka isiHlamfa sesibili, ishaya umthetho weChicagoccago wokuvimbela ukuphatha izikhali. Isinqumo sasingu 5-4, ngoMahluleli Samuel Alito ebhala iningi ukuthi ilungelo lokuzimela ngokwalo i-difense yi "isisusa esiqondisweni sesizwe senkululeko evunyelwe."""

Ikusasa lokufakwa komphakathi lingase lihlanganise amalungelo angahlelwanga ngokucacile kuyi-Bill of Rights. Ngokwesibonelo, ilungelo lokuzifihla, eliqashelwa .Connecticut[65] futhi anwetshwe [[FLT:]ROE v. [ (1773]) kanye [indlela ephakathi kwe-] [Obergeckevv. Hodges[ [2020], isuka ku-"NUMBRA" ye-GUMFUM" ne-GUnyaka ka-145]. Le nqubo ehlonipheyokuhlelayo, ayilandelwangalandelwangakhombi ukuhlulwa okungokwesiko, kodwa ilandela ukuchaza okubalulekile kwenani elisha. Imvume yokulawula i-Clauscast Clauscaus.

Izicelo Eziwusizo Zabameleli Namuhla

Kulabo abasekela inkululeko yangaphakathi yanamuhla, imfundiso yokuhlanganisa ihlala iyithuluzi elibalulekile. Uma umthetho kazwelonke ubekela inselele ukukhululeka kwenkululeko yokukhuluma noma ukukhipha izijeziso zobugebengu ezinzima, umbuzo wokuqala uvamile: Ingabe lomthetho uphula ilungelo elifakiweyo? Uma kunjalo, ummeli angaletha icala ngaphansi komthetho kahulumeni, afune impumuzo esheshayo enkantolo kahulumeni. Lendlela ivumela abameleli ukuba badlulise izinkantolo zikahulumeni ezinamandla aphikisayo futhi bathembele ezibonelweni ezisezingeni eliphezulu.

I-corpoation futhi isiza ekusebenziseni imikhankaso yokuququda izwe lonke. Izinhlangano zingafaka iziphakamiso ezihambelanayo ezinkantolo emazweni amaningi, zithembele ezimisweni ezifanayo zomthetho-sisekelo, ukuze zibeke inselele emikhubeni esakazeke kakhulu njengemithetho ehlanganisa ubuhlanga, imithetho ye-ID, noma imingcele yokuvinjelwa komsebenzi wokubhikica. Ukufana kwamalungelo ahlanganisiwe kuvumela abameleli ukuba bathuthukise iziphakamiso ezilula nezimpikiswano ezisebenza ngokungaguquguquki ezisebenza ezimisweni.

Ngaphezu kwalokho, ukuhlanganiswa kwemithetho kuyaqhubeka kudala imibuzo emisha engokomthetho. Izimpikiswano zamuva ngomthetho ovimbela ukuguqulwa kwenguquko, imingcele eziteshini zezokuxhumana, kanye nokungangeni kwemithetho emelene nobandlululo ezingokwenkolo konke kuhlanganisa amalungelo okuQhubela Umthetho wokuqala. Ukuziphendukela kobuchwepheshe kuphakamisa futhi izimpikiswano ezinjengokuthi imingcele yeSichibiyelo sesine sokuphenyiswa kokuhlola isebenza eqoqweni likahulumeni lokwaziswa kwamanani noma ekusetshenzisweni kwemidanti engaphansi kwamaphoyisa ezweni.

Ukusebenza Phakathi Nezingxabano Zobuzwe

Nakuba ukuhlanganiswa kuqinisekisa isitezi sikahulumeni, abameleli kumelwe basebenzise izakhiwo eziyinkimbinkimbi zombuso. Amanye amalungelo afakwa ngokwengxenye kuphela. Ngokwesibonelo, isiHlulo sesithupha sokulunga emacaleni obugebengu safakwa .ULouisiana (1968), kodwa iNkantolo iye yakholelwa ukuthi ilungelo alisebenzi ekwahlulelweni okuncane okujeziswa ngezinyanga eziyisithupha noma ngaphansi kwejele. Ngokufanayo, iSichibiyelo seSembe secala secala enkantolo yombangokwabantu abangakaze bafakwe ecaleni lomphakathi, izincazelo zingasebenzisa izinqubo ezingagunyaziwe ezindabeni zomphakathi.

Ngaphezu kwalokho, ukufakwa kwamalungelo akuzinqumeli ngokwawo. INkantolo Ephakeme ivame ukuchaza izinga elihlukile emongweni welungelo kunoma imuphi umongo kahulumeni. Ngokwesibonelo, iSichibiyelo Sokuqala senkulumo yezentengiselwano nenkulumo yezisebenzi zomphakathi kungaba nomehluko ohlukile uma kubhekiswa kuhulumeni bendawo. Abameleli kumelwe bahlale bekhona ezincazelweni zeNkantolo ezisekelwe kuhulumeni.

Isiphetho: Ifa Elihlala Njalo Lokudunyiswa

Imfundiso yokufakwa kwenkululeko yaseMelika ngokuyisisekelo iye yaguqula inkululeko yaseMelika yomphakathi, yanikeza iBill of Rights isivikelo sikahulumeni kuphela kuya esiqinisekisweni sesizwe senkululeko eyisisekelo. Phakathi nekhulu leminyaka lesinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme, cishe wonke amalungelo afakwe ezinhlondleni zokuqala zokuqala eziyishumi aye aqiniswa ngokuphoqelelwa ezizweni. Lokhu kuziphendukela kwemvelo okungokomthetho kuye kwanika izisekelo zenkululeko zomphakathi amandla okubekela inselele ukucindezela kombuso, isivikelo esihlangene, futhi kwenza ohulumeni bafune ukulandisa kuzo zonke izinga.

Nakuba izimpikiswano eziphathelene nesilinganiso esifanelekile sokuhlanganisa, isimiso sayo esiyisisekelo siyaqhubeka, ukuthi amalungelo athile ayisisekelo kakhulu kangangokuthi akukho hulumeni ongawaphula `ahlala ewumthetho-sisekelo waseMelika. Kunoma ubani ohileleke ekulweleni inkululeko yomphakathi, ukuqonda akuyona nje inqubo yemfundo yemfundo; kuyisidingo esiwusizo sokuphumelela kwemfundo. Lemfundiso inikeza amagama angokomthetho namathuluzi omthetho ukuze kuvikelwe inkululeko yokukhuluma, inkululeko engokwenkolo, inqubo efanele, nobulungisa obulinganayo kuzo zonke izingxenye zesizwe.

Njengoba kuvela izinselele ezintsha, kusukela ekuqapheni kwemishini kuya ekususeni imibono ehlanganisayo yokuzifihla, ngokungangabazeki ukwakheka komklamo kuyovivinywa futhi kucwengisiswe. Kodwa indima yayo eyisisekelo ekutholeni inkululeko yomuntu emelene nobuqili bombuso akunakwenzeka ukuba inciphe. Imfundiso yokuhlanganisa imelela amandla ahlala njalo oMthetho-sisekelo ukuba uvumelane nawo futhi uvikele amalungelo abo bonke abantu baseMelika, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi bahlalaphi.

[ukuqhubeka ufunda ngentuthuko engokomlando yokuhlanganisa, bheka iBill of Rights ewebhsayithi yeSibonelo Sezinqolobane zeNational . Ukungena okujule kakhulu eSigqini seSigqi nesekusebenzeni, hlola [[FLT:][FLT] [[FLT:] [12] uMthetho-Constitution owe-owe-mscracture of Cources [[FLT:]][FLT:][FLT:][FLT][10]] [FLT]]