Umqondo wokwahlukana kwemibuso uyisisekelo sokusebenza kukahulumeni olungile. Iqinisekisa ukuthi akukho ndawo eyodwa noma iqembu elinamandla amakhulu kakhulu, ukukhuthaza isimiso sokuhlola nokulinganisela okuvikela amalungelo ezakhamuzi. Lesi simiso, esifakwe kakhulu eMthethweni we-U.S. kanye nezinye izici zentando yeningi emhlabeni wonke, akuyona nje ilungiselelo lezesayensi kodwa ukuzimisela kwefilosofi ukuvimbela ubushiqela nokukhuthaza ukubusa okunesibopho. Ukuqonda ukuthi amandla ahlukene kanjani kudinga ukubheka umsuka wawo, ukufezeka kwawo okuwusizo, kanye nokusebenza kwawo okuqhubekayo enkathini yokwandisa igunya lezempathiwe nezinselele zomhlaba wonke.

Imvelaphi Yokuhlukana Kwamandla

Izimpande zokuhlakanipha zokuhlukanisa amagunya zidume kakhulu kumfundi waseFrance uMentesquieu, ongqondongqondo abasebenza ngo-1748 uMoya woMthetho [ waphikisana ngokuthi inkululeko ilondolozwe kangcono uma ummeli wemithetho, isikhulu, nemisebenzi yokwahlulela kahulumeni ibambelele emabusweni ahlukene. UMontesquieu uthonye kakhulu izinhloso zakhe , ezazingabaza amandla aqinile kakhulu ngemva kolwazi lwawo nombuso waseBrithani namakoloni. [[FLT:] Firest.[47:5], uJames uMedia ubhala ukuthi “ukuhlanganisa wonke amandla, izikhulu, izikhulu, izikhulu, nezingamele, nezingalo ezinkulu ezinkulu zombuso, ezingamashicishini ezithiswe ngezandla ezithini ezithiswe ngokufanelekile. [[Flve:] kulelo ngalinye lomthetho wegatsha lombuso.[Fod.[5]]

Ngokomlando, izibonelo zangaphambili zikahulumeni, njengomthetho - sisekelo oxubile waseRoma lasendulo (oneziphakamiso, iSigebengu, nemihlangano emikhulu), ophawulwe ngegunya elihlukene, kodwa isimiso sanamuhla se-trartite siyifa eliqondile lenkolelo yezombangazwe yokukhanyiselwa. Ukuhlolwa kweU.S. kwaba yisinyathelo semibuso eminingi yentando yeningi yentando yeningi, nakuba isimo sayo esiqondile sobumongameli esihlukanisa ngokuqinile — abahlukume ezimisweni zephalamende ezihlanganisa izikhulu nezimiso zemithetho.

Ukuqonda Amagatsha Amathathu

Ukuhlukaniswa kwemibuso kuhlukanisa imithwalo yemfanelo kahulumeni ibe amagatsha amathathu ahlukene, ngalinye elinemisebenzi yalo eyisisekelo kanye nokulinganiselwa kwalo. Lamagatsha ayi-propatiotigion, isikhulu, ne-acage. Nakuba i-U.S. iyisibonelo esivelele, amanye amazwe amaningi (kusukela eJalimane kuya eNdiya)/izakhiwo ezifanayo. Ngezansi, sihlola igatsha ngalinye ngokujula, kuhlanganise namandla alo, iziphazamiso, kanye nemisebenzi yangempela yezwe.

Igatsha Elingokomthetho

Igatsha lemithetho ngokuyinhloko linomthwalo wemfanelo wokwenza imithetho. E-United States, leligatsha libunjwa yiSishaya-Mkhandlu, indikimba ye-badamal ekhiwa iNdlu yabameleli neSigele. Igumbi ngalinye linamandla akhethekile aklanyelwe ukulinganisela ukumelelwa abantu (Indlu) nomfanekiso wezwe olinganayo (Sanetate). Lesi sakhiwo se-biobaral ngokwaso siwuhlobo lokuhlukanisa amandla ngaphakathi, siqinisekisa ukuthi akukho ndikimba yemithetho elawulayo enqubeni yokushaya umthetho.

Imisebenzi eyinhloko yegatsha lomthetho zihlanganisa:

  • Ukuphoqa nokuvota umthetho: Amabhukwana kumelwe adlule kuzo zombili iziteji ngendlela efanayo ngaphambi kokuba athunyelwe kuMongameli.
  • Ukulawula imali kahulumeni nentela: Amandla esikhwama semali ayisivivinyo esiyinhloko semithetho ephethe; zonke izikweleti zemali kumelwe zivele eNdlini.
  • Izivumelwano zokugunyaza: ISigele kumelwe sivumele izivumelwano zamazwe ngamazwe ngokuvota okungama - 3 amabili.
  • Ukuqinisekisa ukumiswa kukamongameli: ISigele siqinisekisa onobhala beKhaya, abahluleli, amanxusa nezinye izikhulu zesigaba esiphakeme.
  • Ukuphoqelela nokususa: Indlu ingazikhipha izikhulu zikahulumeni (kuhlanganise noMongameli), futhi iSigele siqule icala futhi singazisusa ngokuvota okungama - 3 amabili.

UKhomishane futhi uqondisa igatsha eliphethe ngokuqulwa kwecala, ngokuhlola, nange-Hulumeni Accounting Office. Lamandla ophenya abalulekile ukuze kube nokubonakala nokulandisa. Ngokwesibonelo, ukuqulwa kwamacala enhlangano ngokwehluleka kokuhlakanipha noma ukuziphatha okubi kobukhulu kungaholela ezimweni ezinzima, ekulungiseni izinqubo zemithetho noma, ezimweni ezingezinhle.

Igatsha Eliphethe

Igatsha eliphethe linomthwalo wemfanelo wokumisa imithetho nokuqondisa uhulumeni. Liqondiswa nguMongameli, okhonza futhi njengoMphathi wamabutho ahlomile nomphathi omkhulu wesizwe. Amandla kaMongameli anzima kodwa alinganiselwe amanye amagatsha. Umphathi akahlanganisi nje iWhite House kuphela kodwa futhi nezinhlangano zikahulumeni, iminyango (njengeMnyango Wezobulungisa noMnyango Wezentengiselwano), kanye nesikhulu esikhulu esisebenzisa isimiso.

Imisebenzi eyinhloko yegatsha eliphethe ihlanganisa:

  • Ukusebenzisa nokumisa imithetho ekhishwa uMkhandlu: UMongameli unikeza izinhlangano isiqondiso sokugcina imithetho.
  • Ukuqhuba izindaba zakwamanye amazwe nezingxoxo: UMongameli uxoxa ngezivumelwano, umisa amanxusa futhi umelela i - United States embulungeni yonke.
  • Emisa izikhulu namajaji kahulumeni: Ngesiqinisekiso Sezigele, uMongameli ugcwalisa izikhundla ezikhundleni zamajaji nezabaphathi.
  • Iziqondiso ezinikezwa abaqondisi: Leziziqondiso ziqondisa ukusebenza kukahulumeni kahulumeni, kodwa kumelwe zisekelwe emthethweni noma eMthethweni.
  • Umthetho wokukhipha isigwebo: UMongameli angakwenqaba ukukhokha izikweletu ezidluliswa uMkhandlu, nakuba ukukhishwa kwezikweletu ezimbili kungawuqeda umlomo.

Amandla omphathi aye akhula kakhulu ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, ikakhulukazi ezindaweni ezinjengezokulondeka kwesizwe, amandla esimo esimo esiphuthumayo, kanye negunya lokulawula. Omongameli banamuhla bavame ukuthembela eziyalweni zokuqondisa ukuqhubekisela phambili izinqumbi zezimiso lapho uKhongolo luvaliwe. Nokho, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yahlola izikhulu ngezikhathi ezithile ukuthi zixhaphakile , ngokwesibonelo, [intsha] faka i-Stown & Tube Co. v. Sawyer [[52]] , iNkantolo yeNkanto yeNkantolo kaPreemperier Truman] phakathi neMpilo ye-Korea yayingalawuleki, ifaka imingcele yamandla embusweni ye-onqandayo ye-Octiventialgarn ngaphandle kwe-ographiault.

Igatsha Lokwahlulela

Igatsha lokwahlulela lichaza imithetho futhi liqinisekisa ukuthi isetshenziswa ngokulinganayo. Lihlanganisa isimiso sezinkantolo zikahulumeni, iNkantolo Ephakeme njengenkantolo ephakeme kakhulu. Ijaji lizimele, futhi abahluleli bamiselwe ukuphila (ngokuzithoba ekuziphatheni okuhle) ukuze liyivikele ekucindezeleni kwezombangazwe. Lokhu ukuzimela kubalulekile ukuze kusekelwe ekukhetheni nasekuvikeleni amalungelo abantu ngabanye.

Imisebenzi eyinhloko yegatsha lokwahlulela ihlanganisa:

  • Ukuchaza uMthetho-sisekelo nemithetho: Amandla eNkantolo Ephakeme okuhlola ukwahlulela, asungulwe [[FLT]] Marbury v. Madison (1803] , ivumela ukubulala imithetho ephula uMthetho-sisekelo.
  • Ukuxazulula izimpikiswano ezingokomthetho: Izinkantolo zimisa amacala omphakathi nowecala, zinikeza inkundla yokwahlulela.
  • Ukuvikela amalungelo abantu: Ngokunquma inkululeko yokukhuluma, inqubo efanele, ukulingana, nokungahloniphi, abahluleli bavikela inkululeko engokomthetho - sisekelo.
  • Imithetho egunyazayo isetshenziswa ngokungaguquki: Isigaba sabefundisi sokwahlulela — kusukela ezinkantolo zesigodi kuya ezinkantolo zesifunda kuya eNkantolo Ephakeme — iveza isibonelo esiyisigqizo esiqondisa izinkantolo eziphansi nabadlali bakahulumeni.

Inkantolo ithembele kumphathi wemithetho ukuze afake izimali nezimiso zenkantolo. Ngaphezu kwalokho, amajaji amiswa nguMongameli futhi aqiniswe yiSigele, anikeze amagatsha ezombangazwe indima ekulolongeni ijaji. Noma kunjalo, lapho eseqinisiwe, amajaji ombuso ajabulela ukuphila, awavumele ukuba alawule ngaphandle kokwesaba ukuphindisela.

Ama - vicket Nokulinganisela Okusebenzayo

Ukuhlukaniswa kwemibuso kupheleliswa yisimiso samasheke nama-ascer, avumela igatsha ngalinye likahulumeni ukuba lilinganisele amandla amanye. Lesimiso sibalulekile ukuze kugcinwe ubulungisa futhi kuvinjelwe ubushiqela. Sidala amandla lapho kungekho gatsha elingathatha khona isinyathelo ngaphandle kokuqondisa noma ukuphindisela kwelinye igatsha. Ngezansi kunezibonelo eziyinhloko zokusebenza kokuhlola nokulinganisela.

Umthetho Uhlola Isikhulu

  • ISishaya - mthetho singathatha indawo kamongameli ngengxenye eyodwa kwezintathu kuzo zombili izintambo.
  • ISigele kumelwe siqinisekise ukumiswa komongameli, kuhlanganise namalungu eKhabhithe, amajaji kahulumeni namanxusa.
  • Isigele kumelwe sivume izivumelwano ngokuvota okuyizingxenye ezimbili kwezintathu.
  • UKhongolose ulawula uhlelo lokusetshenziswa kwemali — futhi amandla esikhwama semali — futhi anganqaba ukusekela izinyathelo zokuphatha.
  • ISishaya - mthetho singaphenya futhi siqule amacala ukuze siqondise izenzo zezikhulu.
  • UKhomishane ungamkhipha uMongameli, uMongameli ongumsizi nezinye izikhulu zomphakathi ngenxa “yokucabanga, ukufumbathisa, noma ezinye izenzo zobugebengu eziphakeme kanye namaphutha.”

Isikhulu Esiphethe Sihlola Icala

  • UMongameli angakhipha umthetho okhishwa uMkhandlu.
  • UMongameli angabiza iSishaya - mthetho ukuba sibe isimiso esikhethekile (singasasetshenziswa njalo).
  • UMongameli anganikeza iziyalezo eziqondisa izinhlangano eziqondisayo eziqondile, ezithonya indlela imithetho esetshenziswa ngayo.
  • NjengoMkhuzi wempi, uMongameli angathumela amabutho empi ngaphandle kokuvunyelwa ngaphambi kwenhlangano, nakuba uKhongolose elawula ukuxhaswa kwezimali futhi engamemezela impi.

Ukwahlulela Kuhlola Isikhulu Nomthetho

  • INkantolo Ephakeme ingamemezela imithetho noma izenzo zezikhulu ezingekho emthethweni ngokubukeza kokwahlulela.
  • Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zingakhipha izimemezelo zokunqanda izenzo zobukhulu eziphula umthetho noma uMthetho - sisekelo.
  • Izinkantolo zichaza imithetho, okungase kunciphise indlela umphathi angayisebenzisa ngayo.

Imithetho Nesimiso Sezokuqondisa Isesha Esikhungweni Sezindaba

  • ISishaya - mthetho singakha noma siqede izinkantolo eziphansi zikahulumeni futhi sinqume ukuthi zinegunya elingakanani (ngokungaphansi kwemingcele engokomthetho).
  • UKhongolo-mthetho ungamisa izinguquko zokugumbuqela izinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme (umzk., iSikhawu seshumi nanye, 14 neseshumi elinesihlanu Izichibiyelo zashintshwa uScott)).
  • UMongameli umisa amajaji, futhi iSigele siyawaqinisekisa, silolonge indlela abaqanjwe ngayo abahluleli.
  • ISishaya - mthetho singabahlupha futhi sikhiphe amajaji kahulumeni ngenxa yokuziphatha okubi.

Lamagunya ahlangene adala indlela yokuvimbelana. Ngokwesibonelo, phakathi nehlazo leWatergate, iNkantolo Ephakeme yayala uMongameli uNixon ukuba akhiphe amakhasethi aqoshiwe (ku [FLT]] United States v.[FLT][FLT][[[FLT]]] [[3]), futhi iSivumelwano sasebenzisa amandla aso okuphoqelela ukuyeka kwakhe. Muva nje, iKhomisha iye yasebenzisa ukuhlola izenzo zesikhulu zezokuthutha abantu ekuphenduleni inqubo yeze kubhedu. Isimiso sivame ukuba i-prune-prid, hhayi iglock, hhayi i-biglock, ngoba idinga ukuvumelana kwezenzo ezinkulu.

Ukuhlukana Kwamandla Ngokombono Oqhathaniswa

Nakuba i-U.S. ingumfuziselo owaziwayo kakhulu, ezinye imibuso yentando yeningi isebenzisa ukuhlukaniswa kwemibuso ngokwehlukile. Ngokwesibonelo, i-United Kingdom, isebenza ngaphansi kwesimiso sombuso wephalamende lapho umphathi (uNdunankulu noMphathi) ethathwa khona kusishaya-mthetho futhi eyolandisa kuso. Ukuhlanganiswa kwemibuso e-UK kusho ukuthi uMphathi weNkosana weNkomkhulu uyinhloko uyinhloko kahulumeni nelungu lePhalamende. Nokho, i-judiary ezimele nendlu yoLords (inkonzo yesizwe esusiwe ngo-2009 lapho kusungulwa iNkantolo Ephakeme ye-UK) isanikeza izinhlolo zemithetho. Izimiso zePhalamende zingaphumelela kakhulu ekudluliseni umthetho, kodwa zigxilisa amandla amakhulu kakhulu ekulawuleni lapho iqembu elibusayo libusayo.

Ngokuphambene, amazwe anjengeJalimane neFrance axuba izici. I-German ineNkantolo enamandla ye-Federal Constitution ehlola ngokuzikhandla ukwahlulela, futhi i-Bundestag (i-Bundeslag) ikhetha i-Chancellor (ibulala) kodwa ayikwazi ukuyisusa kalula (ivoti evumelanayo yokungathembi). I-Freenthe Republic yeFrance inemithetho enamandla, kodwa ibukeza imithetho ye-mthetho-mfascracy. Le nguquko ibonisa ukuthi ukuhlukaniswa kwemibuso akusona ikhambiso elinohlobo olulodwa; kumelwe ivumelaniswe nempucuko yezwe nezomlando wezombangazwe.

Nokho, isimiso esiyinhloko sisavunyelwe kabanzi: ukuhlukanisa amandla kuvimbela ukuphambuka kombuso wentando yeningi. Ngokwe- Izindawo zombuso wentando yeningi [[[VVDEM:2]] umsebenzi [[FLT:]], amazwe anezinhlomo ezinamandla kakhulu kumandla ombuso kahulumeni awanakubhekana nokuphambuka kwentando yeningi. Lokhu kugcizelela ukubaluleka okusebenzayo kokuhlukaniswa kwamandla embusweni wentando yeningi.

Izinselele Nezisolo Zangesikhathi Esidlule

Naphezu kwamandla ayo, ukwehlukana kwemibuso kubhekene nezinselele ezinkulu enkathini yanamuhla. Impikiswano enkulu ingu uphakele . Abaholi bawo womabili amaqembu baye bandisa ukusetshenziswa kwemithetho yezikhulu, izimemezelo zezwe, nezinqumo eziphuthumayo, kanye nezenzo ezingagwegwesiyo. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi lokhu kuqeda indima yegatsha lemithetho yemithetho yesizwe futhi kwakha “umbuso owe-amandla." Ngokwesibonelo, ukusetshenziswa kwemithetho yezikhulu ukumisa izinguquko ezinkulu ekuthuthweni kwezokufuduka, umthetho wemvelo, ukulawulwa kwezindawo, nokuboleka kwabafundi kuye kwabangela izimpi ngokomthetho nezikhalo zemithetho ephakeme. INkanto ephakeme ngezinye izikhathi iphinde ihlehlise (isibonelo., isithiyohlombe evimbela ukuvalwa kwezindawo zokuhamba noma ukuhla kweMinyango) kodwa iPromeston ephethe.

Enye inselele [[FLT: 0] i-judicialism yesenzo sobujudicist noma ukuphambanisa. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi ngezinye izikhathi izinkantolo zisungula amalungelo amasha noma zishaye imithetho yedemokrasi esekelwe ekuchazeni okukhulu komthetho-sisekelo. Impikiswano ngendima efanele yejaji `````````'''''' ingazilawula noma isebenzise incazelo yokuqala yomthetho-" ihlala iphikisana. Ngalesosikhathi, ukubekwa kwemithetho ye-jicalygiary [[ ngokwandayokuqinisekisa ukuthembeka kwe-196] izimpi zomphakathi kusongela ukwethemba umphakathi ezinkantolo. IMerrickland Courtlence ayiphikisangaphikiswangaphikiswayo futhi kamuva nokuqinisekiswa kweJanyusi-Govani, i-Kvani, i-Barlettlettne, i-est projectiveds.

Ngaphezu kwalokho, i-grid lock isikhalo esivamile ngokuhlukana kwemibuso. Uma elinye iqembu lilawula iWhite House futhi elinye lilawula elinye noma zombili igumbi leSishaya-mthetho, umkhiqizo wemithetho ungabangela ukumiswa. Lokhu kungaholela ekuvinjelweni kukahulumeni, izilinganiso zemali ezibambene, nokuhluleka ukuxazulula izinkinga zezentengo. Abanye ososayensi bezombangazwe baphikisa ngokuthi i-U.S.veto izimpawu eziningi zesimiso zenza kube nzima kakhulu ukudlulisa umthetho omkhulu, okungaba inkinga ephuthumayo. Nokho, abasekeli bezokuhlukanisa i-graption baphendula ukuthi iwuphawu oluvikela ushintsho olubangelwa yinqubo yezekelela eqhutshwa yizenziwayo.

Okokugcina, ukumiswa kwezinhlangano zokuphatha [[[FLT: 1] ezihlanganisa imisebenzi yemithetho, yokuphatha, neyokwahlulela (umz., i-Federal Communications Commission ingamisa imithetho, iyenze iqikelele, futhi ibeke izimpikiswano) kufiphele imigqa ecacile yokuhlukanisa. Leli “gatsha lesine” likahulumeni, nakuba lisebenza kahle, liphakamisa imibuzo ephathelene nokulandisa ngokomthetho. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yakhuluma ngalokhu ngemfundiso engathembekile nangemibuzo emikhulu, idinga ukunikeza isiqondiso esicacile lapho kunikezwa izinhlangano amandla ahlukene, kodwa umagazini uyaqhubeka uphikisana ngokunamandla.

Ukubaluleka Okuhlala Njalo Kokuhlukana Kwamandla

Naphezu kokungapheleli kwayo, ukwahlukana kwemibuso kuhlala kubalulekile kuhulumeni olungile ngenxa yezizathu eziningana. Okokuqala, kuveza ukugcwala kwamandla kunoma yiliphi inhlangano elilodwa, kukwenza kube nzima kakhulu kumbusi ononya noma uhulumeni olawulayo ukuba athathe ukulawula. Umlando ubonisa ukuthi idemokrasi eyenza buthaka ukwehlukana [1] njengokuseHungary nasePoland ngaphansi kohulumeni bamuva (hd shondhd productions idevings ideviced in the Biblical mes.

Okwesibili, [[QLT:0] ikhuthaza ukubambisana nokuhlehla [ phakathi kwamagatsha. Ngoba alikho igatsha elingabusa kuphela, abadlali bezombangazwe kumelwe baxoxe, bathengise, futhi bakhe ukuvumelana. Lokhu kungathatha ijubane lokwenza izinqumo, kodwa futhi kuqinisekisa ukuthi izimiso zibonakalisa ukugxiliswa okukhulu futhi azinakwenzeka ukuba zithatheke noma zibe nonya.

Okwesithathu, [[QL:0] ivikela amalungelo abantu ngabanye nenkululeko [. Ijaji elizimele lingashaya imithetho ephula inkululeko yomthetho-mthetho, futhi isishayamthetho singamisa imithetho yokunqanda ukuxhashazwa kweziphathimandla. I-Bill of Rights isebenza ngokuphumelela kakhulu uma izinkantolo zingabukelwa umphathi noma isishaya-mthetho.

Okwesine, [[QLT:0] izikhungo zokulandisa nokubona ngapha nangapha . Igatsha ngalinye linendlela yokuhlola amanye, ukudalula ububi nokuphoqelela izikhulu ukuba zithethelele izenzo zazo. Ukuqulwa kwecala lomphakathi, imibono yokwahlulela, kanye nomongameli konke kufaka iqhaza empumelelweni yomphakathi yokubusa izakhamuzi ezingayihlola.

Ukufunda okwengeziwe ngesisekelo esingokomlando kanye nezinhlelo zanamuhla zokuhlukanisa amagunya, abafundi bangahlola [FLT]] [[FLT]] Izincwadi ezisungulwe zeNkantolo , ezihlanganisa uMthetho-sisekelo namaPhepha anamuhla. Ngaphezu kwalokho, [FLT] [FLT]] [FLT] isakhiwo seNkanto engokomthetho yeNkantolo yeNkantolo [[FLT]] inikeza imibono ebonisa ukuhlola nezilinganiso ngesenzo. Umqondo olinganayo, [FLT:] [FLT] [FLT] iproject:[FFF][FF:F]

Isiphetho

Ekuphetheni, ukwahlukana kwemibuso kuyisimiso esibalulekile esisekela ukwakheka kukahulumeni wethu. Ngokuhlukanisa imithwalo yemfanelo phakathi kwe-propatistion, isikhulu, namagatsha okwahlulela, futhi sisebenzise amasheke namasheke, singaqinisekisa ukuthi uhulumeni wethu uhlala ulungile futhi ulungile kuzo zonke izakhamuzi. Nakuba kungekho simiso esiphelele, futhi ukucindezela kwamanje kuyinselele, isisekelo esimiswe abasunguli siyaqhubeka sinikeza isisekelo esiqinile sokubusa kwentando yeningi. Njengoba izakhamuzi ziqonda ukuthi lezi zinqubo zisebenza kanjani zokwenza izivikelo zezombangazwe ukuze zivikele futhi zivimbele zonke izikhulu. Ukuhlukaniswa kwemibuso akuyona inkolelo eyisisekelo engekho ngokomthetho; kusebenza nsuku zonke ukuze kuhlele indlela imithetho elawulwa ngayo, elawulwayo, futhi ichazwe.