Ukuqonda Ukuhlangana KoMbusi Wezwe Ekumangalelweni Kwezokuthutha Komphakathi

Izimiso zokuvikela uhulumeni zisekelwe kakhulu empilweni yaseMelika. Izindawo nezinhlangano zazo zingagwetshwa ngaphandle kwemvume yazo. Ngokomongo wezimiso zokuhamba zomphakathi, amabhasi asedolobheni, izimiso zesitimela ezihambayo, iziteshi zesitimela, nezinkonzo zemikhumbi ezihanjwa uhulumeni, zenza indawo ehlukile futhi enzima kakhulu ekuhlaseleni abantu. Abagibeli abalimala ezingozini, izisebenzi ezibhekene nezingxabano zasemsebenzini, noma izisebenzi ezifuna ukukhokhwa zingathola ukuthi lokho kuvinjelwa ngokushesha yizinkonzo yezentelezi ezivela emfundweni yezentelelweni yezentengiselwano yesiNgisi neyaseSiphendulo seshumi Nenye.

Ngoba iziphathimandla zokuthutha umphakathi ziyizikhali zikahulumeni noma zikahulumeni wendawo, zizuza ngefa lesisivikelo esizimele. Nokho, imfundiso ayiphelele. Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, izishaya-mthetho nezinkantolo ziye zaqopha ngaphandle, iziphakamiso, namacebo omthetho avumela ezinye ukuba ziqhubeke. Ochwepheshe bezomthetho, izikhulu zezokuthutha, nabasekeli bezimiso, ukuqondwa kahle kwalezizici kubalulekile ukuze bahlole, balawule izingozi, futhi baqinisekise ukuthi amalungu alimele anendlela yokuqondisa uma kufaneleka.

Isisekelo Esingokomlando Nomthetho - sisekelo

Isichibiyelo Seshumi Nanye Nemfundiso Yakuqala

Isimiso sokuzimela uzibuse sangaphambi komthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. sasithi "inkosi ayinakwenza okungalungile," okusho ukuthi umqhele awunakukhishwa ngaphandle kwemvume yayo. Ngemva kweNguquko yaseMelika, yamukela lo mqondo. ISiphendulo seshumi Nenye, sagunyazwa ngo-1795, saphinde saqinisekiswa ngokucacile ukuthi imfucumfucu yesizwe yalethwa enkantolo engokomthetho yizakhamuzi zombuso noma izizwe zakwamanye amazwe. Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, iNkanto ePhakathi ePhakamileyo yandisa lokhu ukuze ihlanganise isambathi sezakhamuzi zikahulumeni, iphumelela ekumangaleni amazwe amaningi azimele enkantolo yombuso ngaphandle kokuba imvume noma i-Brouni engokomthetho.

Lesivikelo sinwebeka nakuzikhungo zikahulumeni nakumathuluzi, kuhlanganise neziphathimandla zokuhamba zomphakathi. Izembe zaseYunivesithi yaseCalifornia v. Doe (1997), iNkantolo iqinisekisa ukuthi ukuvikelwa kweSichibiyelo seSichibiyelo seshumi Nanye kuhlanganisa izinto ezihlangene "izikhali zikahulumeni," kungakhathaliseki ukuthi zinamandla okukhomba noma athenwa ngaphansi komthetho wezwe. Ukuhlolwa kugxila entweni engokomthetho kahulumeni enecala lokwahlulele inhlangano, izinga lokulawula umbuso, nezingalo zokuxhasa imibuso.

Imvelo Ehlangene: Uhulumeni Nesimiso Sombuso

Ibalulekile, ukuvikela komthetho wokuzivikela ezinkantolo ezizimele emazingeni amabili. Izwe linezokugonywa kwezingubo ezisezinkantolo zikahulumeni ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo seshumi nanye. Ezinkantolo zikahulumeni, zithembele ekulweni okuvamile komthetho, imibuso eminingi eye yagunyaza noma yakuguqula ngemithetho. Izinhlangano zokuhamba zomphakathi ezibekwe enkantolo yombuso zingase ziqinise noma zombili izinhlobo. I-panethili ingadala ukudideka: ummangalelwa oqinile ngaphansi kukahulumeni ukuba asho ukuthi uthatha isinyathelo enkantolo yezwe, kodwa uma igunya lokuthutha lithathwa njengengalo kahulumeni, izikhulu ezifanayo zingavinjelwa enkantolo engekho i-gagcoa noma i-opaver.

Indlela Izimiso Zokuthutha Zomphakathi Ezisiza Ngayo Umbusi

Izimpi Zokuthutha Njengezikhali ZoMbuso

Ukunquma ukuthi iziphathimandla zokuthutha zomphakathi zingazibeka ekuvikeleni ubukhosi, izinkantolo zihlola isakhiwo sazo. Isimiso sebhasi elibunjwe ngokuqondile nguhulumeni kamasipala sivame ukuphathwa njengenhlangano kamasipala, ngokuvamile engakutholi ukuzivikela kombuso. Nokho, igunya lesifunda lokuthutha elenziwe ngomthetho kahulumeni, elixhaswe yizigwebo zikahulumeni, futhi elibuswa izikhulu zikahulumeni ezimiswe uhulumeni cishe zifaneleke njengengalo kazwe. (Esibonelo, i-Washington Metrolitan Areant Transitit Authority (WA), eyakhiwa yi-interstate Count, iphethwe yi-compactive compactive i-octive i-octive ment. [FLT:]][FFLD][FFFM:1] [19981], iNkakhulu iNSProumet profectionmental i-motial ebusa njengenhlangano ye-offcity.

Lokhu kuhlelwa kunemiphumela yangempela. Uma umgibeli ewela emzileni ohamba ngaphansi komhlaba, angaqamba isikhungo sokuthutha njengommangalelwa. Inhlangano ingathatha ngokushesha ukuze ikhiphe isisekelo sokuzivikela kobuso. Inkantolo ihlola umthetho wenhlangano owenza kube khona, isakhiwo sayo sezimali, nesimiso sikahulumeni sokuvikela izingozi. Uma ukuvikela komthetho kusebenza, ummangalelwa kumele abheke kwi-statory rautivers noma ngaphandle.

Izinhlobo Ezingaqondakali Zezinkulumo Ezishiwoyo Ziyathinteka

UMbusi ovikelayo uthonya uchungechunge olubanzi lwecala lomphakathi oluhilela ukuhanjiswa komphakathi:

  • Ukulimala komuntu siqu nokufa okungalungile: Izingozi ezibangelwa ukusebenza okunganaki kwamabhasi, izitimela, noma ukwehluleka kokunakekela.
  • [[[UMTL:0] izimpikiswano zokungavumelani:[[[FT:1] ukucwaswa, ukuziphindiselela, noma ukufuna iholo nehora ngezisebenzi zezokuthutha.
  • Izimpikiswano: Isivumelwano esifinyelelwa abathengisi, amafemu okwakha, noma ama-consoniaires.
  • Amalungelo e-Civil: Izivumelwano zezimiso noma imikhuba engavumelaniyo, njengokuveza izinhlanga ngamaphoyisa ezokuthutha.
  • Umonakalo ovundile: Umonakalo ezimotweni zomuntu siqu ekungqubaniseni nezimoto ezidlulayo noma izisekelo zesakhiwo.

Esigabeni ngasinye, ummangalelwa angase aphikelele ekuvikeleni ukuzivikela, ephoqelela inkantolo ukuba ihlole ukuthi ukhona yini ummangalelwa osebenzayo.

Izigebengu Ezihlukile Nezigebengu: Izindlela Zokulandisa

I - Federal Tort Ithi Act (FTCA)

I-FTCA ([FFLT:0]28 U.S.C. 761 (b), 2671-2680 ) iyinqubo eyinhloko yokumangalela uhulumeni kahulumeni wezwe ngenxa yamatort awenziwe izisebenzi zakhe. Nakuba izinhlangano ze-FTC ezizimele zingagunyazanga, i-FTC ikhuthaza isifunda sezwe. Ngaphansi kwe-FTCA, i-United States develofecter yezenzo zokunganaki noma ukususwa kwezisebenzi ezisebenza ezingeni lomsebenzi, ngokwezinga eliqinile ukuthi umuntu ozimele ungaba negunya ngaphansi komthetho wendawo lapho kwenzeka khona. Lokhu kuchaza ukuthi uma kusetshenziswa (egracking, i-A) ibangela ukulimala okusobala kukahulumeni we-FTC.

Izenzo Zezenzo Nezigebengu Ezilinganiselwe

Umbuso ngamunye uye wamisa uhlobo oluthile lwe-tort lwesenzo sokuthi ngokwengxenye izikhali ezizimelayo ezimelene nezikhungo ezithile zikahulumeni, kuhlanganise neziphathimandla zokuthutha. Ngokwesibonelo, i-California’s Government Ayatects [ ifuna ummeli ochaphazelisayo wokuvikela isifundazwe phakathi nezinyanga eziyisithupha ngaphambi kokuba kubekwe isigwebo esithile. Isethi inikeza i-sethi yethuba lokuhlala. Ukungavumelani nemvume kubulala ukumangalelwa. Ezinye izifundazwe zifaka izikhala ezinhlawulweni, zisusa izindleko, noma imingcele yezindlela ezingalethwalwa imoto. Ngokwesibonelo, eziningi zivikela imingcele yokuzisholo ukuthi ihilela "isuditiontionsus" umsebenzi wokwahlulela, njengoba kuhilela izinqumo ezinje ngohlelo lokuhlela indlela yokuhamba. Izenziwa imishini yokuvimbela imoto ekuhambeni komsele imoto, zingathi ukuphuma imoto ewuveza imoto.

Ukuduliswa Kwemithetho Yomthetho

Isishaya-mthetho singasivikela ekulweni ngokomthetho kwezwe lapho sisebenza ngaphansi kweSigaba 5 seSichibiyelo seshumi nane (isivikelo sokuvikela okufanayo nenqubo efanele). Ngokwesibonelo, izisholo ngaphansi kwesihloko VII se-Civil Rights Act ka-1944 (ubandlululo lwemisebenzi) kanye namaMelika ane-Compalimigate Act (ADA) ngezinye izikhathi anganqoba ukuvikeleka kukahulumeni. i-Board of Trustees of University of Alabamav. Garrett[[FLT][2001] [2001], iNkantolo Ephakeme yeNkanto yokuthi izisebenzi zingakwazi ukukhoselelwa imali ngaphansi kwe-ADA. Kodwa izinhlangano zomphakathi, ezisebenza ekuthuthweni, ezigcinwa njengendlela eqinile yokuvikela ukuvikela ukuvikela inhlalakahle [FT] [FT] [2004] kuphela] i-LaFreenne].[2004]

Ivuma ukuthatha ifadi e-Agency ye-Enathiling

Omunye umthetho kahulumeni owenziwe igunya lokudlula uhlanganisa ukuvunyelwa kwe-region. Ulimi lungahlukahluka. Lungathi, "Igunya lingase limangalelwe futhi lisuswe." Izinkantolo ziye zathi ulimi olunjalo aluzinqandi ngokwalo ukuvikela kombuso ngokuzenzekelayo . resee, umz. Morris v. New York City Transit Authority (N.Y. 1986). Nokho, luyisibonakaliso esinamandla senhloso yemithetho. Amazwe amaningi manje adinga inkulumo ecacile ye-waver; ulimi oludidayo ichazwe ngokuvumelana ne-computer.

Izinhlangano Eziyinhloko Zokuphikisa Abamangalelwa Nabavikeli

Kubantu Abayinqaba: Ukunqoba Ukuzivikela Okungalawuleki

Ukukhuluma ngempumelelo ngokumelene negunya lokuthuthwa komphakathi kudinga ukuthobelana ngokucophelela ngaphambi kokuba kufike. Ama-Attorney kumelwe aphawule i-othoney eqondile kahulumeni, athole ukuthi isokuzivikela yini, bese athola ukuthi i-appiver esebenzayo. Izinyathelo eziyinhloko zihlanganisa:

  1. cwaninga ngesimo esingokomthetho senhlangano: Igunya lokuthutha lingangalo kahulumeni noma isici sikamasipala? Hlola ukwenziwa kwezimiso nomthetho wezendaba.
  2. Ivumelana nezimfuneko ezithi zikhona: Izifundazwe eziningi zidinga isaziso sokusho phakathi nezinsuku eziyi 60 kuya ku-180. Ukungabekho lolu suku olumisiwe ngokuvamile kuyabulala.
  3. Ifaka izikhombisi zomthetho: Bheka kuhulumeni ukuthi uthatha isinyathelo noma ezinye izimiso ezisebenzayo. Ngokwesibonelo, i-Civil Rights Act ka-1871 (42 U.S.C. 76]) ivumela izisuti ngokumelene nohulumeni bendawo, kodwa hhayi ngokwezimo, ngokwemithetho-mthetho-sisekelo. Iziphathimandla ze-Transit eziyizinhlangano zikamasipala ezingase zingene ngaphansi kwe-190111991 (43.C.63)
  4. Impompo eqondile: Gwema ukuphikisa. Bonisa ukuthi ukuziphatha kwenhlangano kungaphandle kwemisebenzi ecacile.

Abavikeli: Ukusekela Nokugcina Ukungafi

Izinhlangano zokuguqula kumelwe zisebenzise isimiso sokuzivikela sobukhosi ekuqaleni kwe-(-* ngokuqondiswe ekuthatheni inyathelo lokuxosha. Iziphetho zingakhushulelwa ngaphansi komthetho we-Federal Guide of Civil Procedure 12(b)(1) ngenxa yokuntuleka kwesimiso sokulawula izihloko. Amaphuzu ayinhloko eseluleko sokuzivikela:

  • ubufakazi besakhiwo senhlangano: Ama-affidavit abonisa ukuxhasa kwezwe, ukumisa amalungu ebhodi ngumbusi, kanye nokuqinisa umbuso kusiza ekumiseni izinga lengalo lezwe.
  • Phendula ngokuvumelana nezinqubo zokuzisholo: Icala eliningi liyahluleka ngoba ummangali we-paltiff akafakanga isaziso esifike ngesikhathi.
  • Umsebenzi oqondisiwe: Uma ukuzisholo kuphikisa isinqumo sesilinganiso sokuhlela, kugcizelela ukuvikeleka ngaphansi komsebenzi wombuso owehlukile.
  • Umonakalo owenziwe nge-limit:[ Ngisho noma ukuvikeleka komzimba kulula, ikepisi elilimazayo lingase lisebenze. Ngokwesibonelo, izifunda eziningi ziyakwazi ukubuyisela ijubane eliqinile ngokumelene nezinhlangano zomphakathi ngo-R150 000 noma ngaphansi.

Intuthuko Ebalulekile Yomthetho Wezono

F.D.I.C. v. Meyer (1994])

Nakuba isihloko sokuqala siphawula F.D.I. v. Meyer, kunezikhawu ezikhuliswayo. Ngaleyondlela, iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela ukuthi i-FTCA's ischemer yesimiso sokuvikela ubukhosi ayidluliseli kumthetho-mthethweni we-togravity. Uma i-patterin ishende i-FDIC ngenxa yokwephula amalungelo ayo enqubweni. Inkantolo yanquma ukuthi i-FCA kuphela isivikelo somthetho we-FTCA, hhayi ngenxa yokwephulwa umthetho we-mthetho. Lokhu kugxeka izigila-mfa: uma i-ekhohlo nge-projectivementsting yesine enziwa amaphoyisa, i-FTCA ayisebenzi; esikhundleni semoto, [FFFFFFFFF] kuphela] [2]

Hillsborough County v. Automated Medical Laboratories, Inc. (1985)

Lelicala lalibhekisele ekutheni umnqandi wesifunda sokuzivikela kobukhosi ethandweni laso lomthetho-mthetho liyasebenza yini. INkantolo Ephakeme yasekela ukuthi abalweli bokuzivikela kobubusi kumelwe bacace futhi bangabi nasici. Lesi simiso sisebenza kubaphathi bezokuthutha: isigqebhezana esivamile "ilungu bese libekwa" ewumthetho kazwelonke asizithinti ngokuzenzakalelayo. Izinkantolo zizodinga ulimi olucacile.

Pennhurst State School and Hospital v. Halderman (19984)

Lelicala eliyingqophamlando lalikhuluma ngesilinganiso seSichibiyelo seshumi nanye enkantolo kahulumeni. INkantolo yaphetha ngokuthi inkantolo kahulumeni ayinakuyala izikhulu zikahulumeni ukuba zivumelane nomthetho kahulumeni. Ukuthatha i-tramfiction, lokhu kusho ukuthi uma umthenwa e-pactiff eshelwa igunya lokuthutha likahulumeni enkantolo kahulumeni ngenxa yokwephula imithetho yokuphepha kahulumeni, inkantolo ayigunyazi ukugunyaza ukugcinwa. Icala kumelwe lilethwe enkantolo yesifundazweni.

Owens v. City of Oklahoma City [202]

Kulelicala le-Tenth Transfusion, umgibeli wamangalela igunya lokuthutha ledolobha ngemva kokulimala engozini yebhasi. Inkantolo yahlaziya ukuthi igunya lokuthutha laliyingalo kahulumeni yini. Yasebenzisa ukuhlolwa okuyisithupha kwezingxenye: (1) ukuthi uhulumeni ungaba necala lesahlulelo; (2) izimali zomuntu nokuzilawula okungokwezimali; (3) ukuthi lomuntu wenza umsebenzi kahulumeni; (4) izinga lokulawula kukahulumeni; (5) ukuthi lomuntu wadalwa yizwe yini; futhi (6) ukuthi ingabe uyakwazi yini ukukhonzwa nokukhonzwa. Inkantolo yathola ukuthi isimiso sokuthutha idolobha sasingesona isandla sombuso futhi ngenxa yalokho sasingenaso isimiso sokuzilawula. Lokhu kubonisa isimo sokuhlola.

Izicelo Ezingokoqobo Zezimo Zokuthutha Nabagibeli

Ukulawula Izingozi Nezici Zomshuwalense

Iziphathimandla zokudlulisa zivame ukuthenga umshuwalense wokuzifaka icala. Ezifundazweni eziningi, ukuthenga ukuzivikela kobuso be-mishuwalense kubekelwe imingcele yezimiso. Lokhu kubangela isikhuthazo sokuba izinhlangano zigcine imfihlo eyanele. Nokho, umthuthi wesikhala umane unwebe kuphela ekutheni uneziphakamiso ezicatshangelwe yinqubo. Uma igunya lezokuthutha lizifaka ngokwalo, lingase lilondoloze isivikelo ngaphandle kokuba i-actives. Abaphathi bengozi ye-agency kufanele bavumelane neseluleko esingokomthetho ukuqinisekisa ukuthi imvume yokuthola umshuwalenselense ihlanganisa abakhokhi abacacile abavumelana nomthetho kahulumeni.

Ukuzinzisa Izinto Ezinamandla

Ngenxa yokuthi ukugonyelwa kokuzivikela kombuso kungaba yisivikelo esiphelele, abamangalelwa ngokuvamile baba nensalela enamandla ekuqaleni kwe-ligitation. Abamangalelwa bangase bavume ukukhokha imali ephansi ukuze bagweme ingozi yokuxoshwa. Ngakolunye uhlangothi, uma ummangalelwa engabonisa umkhohlisi ocacile namaphuzu aqinile, inxusa lingahlala ukuze ligweme izimpawu eziyingozi noma izinqumo ezinkulu. Izindleko ze-benefit calculus zihlukile ekuhlolweni kwangasese, lapho ummangalelwa angacabangela khona ngokuyinhloko.

Ukushintsha Kwemithetho Nokuthatha Imithetho

Ezinye izifundazwe ziye zaya ezindaweni ezibanzi ezivikelayo ekuthuthweni komphakathi, ngokwengxenye ngenxa yokuqaphela ukuthi abagibeli abalimele akumelwe bashiywe ngaphandle kwekhambi. Ngokwesibonelo, ngemva kwezingozi ze-panel-panel, isishaya-mthetho saseNew York salungisa umthetho ka Public Provicesss Law ukuze wandise intengo ye-metropolitan Transport Authority Authority. Nokho, ezinye izifundazwe ziye zalondoloza isivikelo esiqinile sokuvikela imali yomphakathi elinganiselwe. Amaqembu ezokuphatha amaqembu aphikisa ngokuthi ukuzivikela komhlala sengozini encintinyeni encikene encikekile encikene nezindlela ezithile zokuthutha umphakathi. Ukushukuma kwe-fiscal Convitatis arvation nemvume yokungena kobulungisa kuyaqhubeka ukuveza izimpikiswano zemithetho.

Isiphetho

Isimiso sokuvikela uhulumeni siseyisithiyo esikhulu ekuvimbeleni kwezimiso zomphakathi zokuhamba. Izimpande zaso eziseSichibiyelweni seshumi nanye nomthetho ovamile zakha indawo eyinkimbinkimbi lapho impumelelo ixhomeke khona ekuqondiseni okungokwe-procededayo nasekuqondeni okujulile kokungavumelani nomthetho. Iziphathimandla zokuzivikela ekunqandeni inikeza isivikelo esisemgangathweni, kodwa futhi ithwele umthwalo wokuvikela nokulungisa isimilo esisemthethweni uma abagibeli nezisebenzi bekhona. Ukukhokha impumelelo ezindaweni ezivamile kuxhomeke ekutheni ukukhokha intele kodwa akuvalwanga ngokuphelele. Njengoba ukuthutha komphakathi kunikeza i-proceturation, ama-compactive, ama-processsss, ama-octivess, kanye nama-ogaviorditions awetion awer awervel ayaqhubeka ukulungisa amalungelo namakhasime ezisebenzi ezimisweni ezisebenzayo. Ukuhlala njalo, ukuveza imithetho efuna ukuphatha noma ubani omba.