Umsuka Wokwehlukana Kwamandla

Isimiso sokuhlukanisa igunya likahulumeni libe ngamagatsha ahlukene asisukanga kuMelika abaQaphi bamazwe ahlukene. Isazi - mlando sasendulo esingumGreki uPolybius sachaza umthetho-sisekelo oxubene eRome, kodwa inkolelo - mbono yanamuhla yavela ku-Baron de Montesquieu wesazi sefilosofi saseFrance. Kumsebenzi wakhe we 1748 Umoya woMthetho [[FLT] [[FLT] [1] [1], iMontesquieucleus], isekela ukuthi inkululeko ivikeleke kakhulu lapho i-mthetho, i-asteraster, i-astery, [Fourcerty,[2] negunya lokwahlulela libangwa yimiqondo elibanzi, futhi i-Monterregraine, noma ingunyunde, noma i-ogcons, i-ogconsole, ewude kakhulu, noma i-ekhohlansi, noma i-e, ingundayodwa kakhulu, noma i-ose, ingayinye, noma i-e

IConstitution of the Constitution ka 1787 yaphikisana ngokwakheka okuqondile kwalamagatsha. I-Virginia Plan yahlongoza uhulumeni wesizwe oqinile onegatsha ahlukene, kuyilapho i-New Jersey Plan yakhetha isimiso sikahulumeni esibuthakathaka. Ukwephula umthetho ekugcineni kwadala isishaya-mthetho se-bidamaral, umphathi oyedwa, ne-jaji elizimele. Ukwahlukana kwakungeyona into ephelele; iFramers eyakhiwe ngokuhlola nangokulinganisela ukuze kuvinjelwe noma yiliphi igatsha elinamagatsha ukuba libe yigunya. Lokhu kuxuba kwemibuso (ngokwesibonelo, i-veto ngokomthetho, i-paredio kamongameli, indima yeNdmistry yabahluleli abaqinisekisayo) kuyisiciko esiyinhloko sesimiso. Namuhla, ukwahlukaniswa kwemibuso kuseyimfundiso ephilayo, echazwe ngezinkantolo futhi kusetshenziswa isizukulwane ngasinye sabaholi.

Igatsha Elingokomthetho: ISiphakamiso I

UMthetho-sisekelo ufaka wonke amandla omthetho eSishaya-mthetho eSishaya - mthetho, esihlanganisa iNdlu yabameleli neSigeqe. ISiphakamiso I, isigaba 1 sithi: "Wonke Amandla eSishayamthetho anikeziwe lapha abekwa eSishaya - mthetho e-United States, esizohlanganisa iSigeqe nendlu yabameleli." Lesi isihloko sokuqala nesiningi kakhulu, esibonisa inkolelo yabaMaferamers ukuthi isishaya umthetho uyoba igatsha elinamandla neliyingozi kakhulu. Ngokuhlukanisa iSishaya-Hulumeni sibe ngamagumbi amabili, uMthetho-sisekelo uqinisekisa ukuthi ukubekwa komthetho kudinga ukuvumelana okukhulu.

Indlu Yabameleli: Indlu Yabantu

Indlu iklanyelwe ukuba ikwazi ukusabela ngokuqondile emphakathini. Amalungu akhonza ama-galelo amabili eminyaka, awaphoqelela ukuba abhekane nabavoti kaningi. I-memone isekelwe ezakhamuzini zikahulumeni, inikeza ithonya elikhulu eNdlu. UMthetho-sisekelo unika iNdlu amandla okusungula izikweletu zemali, ukuhlola okuyinhloko kumphathi wesikhulu neSigele. Indlu futhi iphethe okukodwa kobumposiso, okusho ukuthi ingakhokha umongameli, umongameli, noma ezinye izikhulu zikahulumeni nge "Isifumbathiso, noma iSifumbathiso, noma ezinye izigebengu eziphakeme ze-Crimears" leligunya elisuka ekusebenzeni kwesiNgisi lokungagunyazi lokuphatha futhi lihlanganisiwe ukuba liba nesikhulu.

Ngokomlando, iNdlu ibiyindawo yokuphikisana ngentela, imali, nesimiso somphakathi. Ukufushaniswa kwale ndlu kwenza ukuba ithambekele kakhulu embonweni womphakathi, okungaholela ekushintsheni ngokushesha kwenqubo. Nokho, umjikelezo weminyaka emibili usho ukuthi amalungu endlu ahlale ekhankasela, okuye kwagxekwa ngokunciphisa ukubusa isikhathi eside. Naphezu kwalokhu, iNdlu ilokhu ilokhu kulokhu kulokhu kulokhu kulokhu kuxhumana okuqondile phakathi kwezakhamuzi nohulumeni.

ISigele: Ikhanda Elipholile Kakhulu

ISigele sathathwa njengendikimba ekhubazekayo, evikelekile ezithandweni ezithandwayo. Ama-Senator asebenzisa izisho zeminyaka eyisithupha, ezine-3 kuphela ye-octed njalo eminyakeni emibili. Isifunda ngasinye, kungakhathaliseki ubukhulu, sinama-senator amabili, qhawe amazwe amancane. ISigele sinamagunya amaningana ayingqayizivele: aqinisekisa ukumiswa kwamalungu omongameli (amakhabinethi, abahluleli, amanxusa), izivumelwano ngevoti eshumi elinesithathu, futhi akhonza njengenkantolo yokungahlolwa. La mandla anikeza iSishayamthetho indima ebalulekile ekulungiseni amagatsha aphethe nezokwahlulela.

Iseluleko seSigele nendima yemvume kuye kwaba yindawo eyisici esiphambili kwezombangazwe zanamuhla. Omongameli ngokuvamile babhekana nezimpi ezinkulu zokuqinisekisa, ikakhulukazi zeNkantolo Ephakeme. ISigele singavimbela futhi izivumelwano, sifuna umongameli ukuba axoxe ne-majoring. I-monilbuster, nakuba ingekho eMthethweni wokuqala, iye yaba yithuluzi elikhulu lezenkolo eSigeqeni, ivumela idlanzana elincane ukuba lilibazise noma livimbe umthetho. Lokhu kuqokomisa indlela ukwahlukana kwemibuso okungahlangani; kuvela ngenkambiso nangomthetho.

Amandla Omhlangano Angaphezu Kokwenza Umthetho

Igunya lombuso we-Congress lidlulela ngalé kwemithetho elotshiwe. Lilawula isikhwama semali sikahulumeni ngamandla esikhwama semali − konke okuchithwayo nokukhokhwa kwentela kumelwe kuvele eKhongolonyeni. Lokhu kunikeza iKhomishane amandla amakhulu phezu kwegatsha eliphethe. UKhongolo-khampathi futhi lunamandla okumemezela impi, nakuba amongameli ngokuvamile beye basebenzisa ibutho lezempi ngaphandle kwezaziso ezingokomthetho. Umthetho unikeza igunya lokuba "Izikongolelo lokusekela iNjongoza elivamile neNtlalo-ntle," eye yachazwa kabanzi ukuze ivumele izinhlelo zikahulumeni zisetshenziswe ezinhlangothini zezempilo.

Ukwengamela kwe-Congregational inye i-corvation ebucayi. AmaKomiti ahlola izenzo zobuphathi, ukubiza ofakazi, nokufuna izincwadi. Lokhu kuhlola kungaveza ububi, kulolonge umbono womphakathi, futhi kuholele ezinguqulweni zemithetho. Izibonelo zamuva zihlanganisa ukuzwa emasitejini ezokuxhumana, ukusabela okuwumshayabhuqe, nemithetho yezimali. Amandla obubonisi awahlelwanga ngokucacile eMthethweni womthetho-sisekelo kodwa aboniswa ngendinyana edingekayo nefanele (I, Candelo 8, Clausle 18).

Igatsha Eliphethe: Isihloko II

ISiphakamiso II simisa ubumongameli futhi sichaza amandla abusayo. Izingubo zokuqala ezigwetshwayo "uMphathi ophethe" kuMongameli, ngokungafani nokuhlelwa kwemithetho okunemininingwane eminingi. Lokhu kuye kwaholela empikiswaneni eqhubekayo ngokuphathelene nobukhomanisi begunya lomongameli. AbaseFrame babesaba ukubusa kombusi kodwa baqaphela isidingo sokuba umlawuli onamandla, onamandla aphoqelele imithetho, aqhube isimiso sangaphandle, futhi ayale umbutho wezempi. I-Electoral College yadalwa ukuze ikhethe umongameli, umbuso olinganiselayo nethonya elithandwayo.

Amandla KaMongameli

Umongameli ukhonza njengesikhulu esiphethe, umphathi wezikhulu zamabutho ahlomile, umphathi we-commist, nomphathi wezwe. UMthetho-sisekelo unika umongameli amandla okumisa umthetho weveto, umisa izikhulu (ngesiqinisekiso sesigele), zenze izivumelwano (ngeseluleko seSigele nemvume), futhi uthethelele izono zikahulumeni. Umongameli futhi unesibopho sokuba "kunakekela ukuba iMithetho ibulawe ngokwethembeka," okusho ukuthi ukwahlulela okubanzi ekubekeni izintambo eziza kuqala.

Ezindabeni zakwamanye amazwe, umongameli ungumkhangisi oyinhloko. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yaqaphela igunya eliyifa likamongameli ekuhleleni kwamanye amazwe, ikakhulukazi ezindaweni ezinjengokuphepha kwesizwe nokusebenzelana. Ngokwesibonelo, United States v. Curtiss-Woright Export Corp. [1936], iNkantolo yaphawula ukuthi umongameli u"isigu sikahulumeni wezwe lonke emkhakheni wobuhlobo bezizwe zonke." Nokho, leligunya alilinganiselwe; uKhomishano-ka ngokomthetho, i-Prosarcession ingalinganisela ukuphatha, ukuxhasa, noma izimo zesivumelwano.

Ama - expoir Amandla Okubusa

UMthetho-sisekelo unikeza izinhlolo eziningi kumongameli. ISishaya-mthetho singakhipha i-veto ngobukhulu obungama-3 000 emagumbini womabili. ISigele kumelwe siqinisekise ukumiswa okukhulu nezivumelwano. ISishaya-mthetho siphethe amandla okungagunyazi nokususwa; iNdlu iziboshwa, neSigele iziboshwa ngevoti eliphindwe kabili. Omongameli ababili kuphela abaye bafundiswa yiNdlu (Andrew Johnson, uBill Clinton, kanye noDonald Trump) kodwa akukho muntu owalahlwa yiSigele.

Ijaji lihlola futhi umphathi ngokuhlola kwejaji. Izinkantolo zingashaya iziyalezo zezikhulu, imithetho, nezenzo eziphula umthetho woMthetho-sisekelo noma umthetho kahulumeni. Izehlulelo ze-Landmark njenge- Intsha ehamba phambili eStep & Tube Co. v. Sawyer[ [1952] amandla alinganiselwe omongameli lapho uMongameli Truman ethatha izinsimbi phakathi neMpi yaseKorea. INkanto yathi isenzo sikamongameli sidlulele ngaphezu kwegunya lakhe lomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo ngenxa yokuthi uKhomishane. Leli cawaya lihlala liyisibonelo esiyinhloko esichaza imingcele yamandla empathi yesikhulu phakathi nosuku lwezimo.

Ukubusa Okukhulayo

Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, igatsha eliphethe ihhovisi liye lakhula kakhulu futhi lathonya. Umongameli wanamuhla ulawula izinhlangano ezinkulu zikahulumeni zeminyango nezinhlangano ezisebenzisa imithetho. Abameli baye basebenzisa kakhulu iziyalezo zezikhulu, i-tatranda, nezimemezelo zokumisa isimiso ngaphandle komthetho. Lokhu kuye kwaphakamisa ukukhathazeka ngokuncishiswa kwemibuso, njengoba abanye bephikisa ukuthi umphathi uyakwazi ukumelana nemithetho elawulayo. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yahlehlela emuva kwezinye izindawo, ngokwesibonelo ku- i-FOtional Federation of Independent Busity v. OSTA[FLT:] [202] [20], okuthiwalinganisela amandla aphuthumayo omphathi wenkampani. Ukulawula kahle nemithetho ephethe imingcele engokomthetho womthetho wezwe ihlala ilokhu iyimpikiswano enkulu.

Igatsha Lokwahlulela: ISiphakamiso III

ISiphakamiso III simisa ijaji likahulumeni, eliholwa yiNkantolo Ephakeme. Ngokungafani namanye amagatsha, ijaji laklanyelwa ukuba libe elibuthakathaka kakhulu, kodwa lingenawo amandla esikhwameni noma enkemba. Igunya lalo lisekelwe ekusebenziseni ukufaneleka kokuqonda kwalo kanye nokuphathiswa umphakathi. Abahluleli bakhonza ukuphila phakathi nokuziphatha okuhle, okuvikelekile ekucindezeleni kwezombangazwe. Lokhu ukuzibusa kudingekile ekuchazeni imithetho ngokungakhethi.

Isakhiwo Nomkhosi

UMthetho-sisekelo udala iNkantolo eyodwa ePhakeme futhi uvumela iziKhongolo ukuba zimise izinkantolo eziphansi. Namuhla, kunamankantolo esifunda ayi-13 ezinkantolo zezezikhalo nezinkantolo zesifunda ezingu-94. INkantolo Ephakeme inegunya lokuqala emacaleni ahilela amazwe namanxusa, kodwa umsebenzi wayo omningi ugunyaza i-appelte(ithit) ewuzwa izikhalo ezingokomthetho eziphansi nezinkantolo eziyinhloko zezindaba zikahulumeni. INkanto enquma ukuthi yimaphi amacala okuzwayo enkantolo ye-certiori, okudinga okungenani amajaji amane ukuba avumelane. Lokhu kulawula izibuko zayo kuvumela iNkantolo yezomthetho ukuba igxile ezimpikiswaneni zikahulumeni eziyinhloko.

Ukubukeza Kokwahlulela

Ithuluzi elinamandla kakhulu lejaji elibukezwayo lokwahlulela: amandla okumemezela imithetho noma izenzo zokuphatha ngaphandle komthetho-mthetho. UMthetho-sisekelo awuwuniki ngokuqondile lombuso. Wamiswa yiNkantolo Ephakeme Marbury v. Madison [1803] [1803]. UMahluleli omkhulu John Marshall wacabanga ukuthi njengoba uMthetho-sisekelo ungumthetho ophakeme wezwe, noma yimuphi umthetho ophikisana nawo kumelwe ungasebenzi, futhi isibopho seNkantolo yejaji eliphetheyo ukusho ukuthi umthetho uyini. Lokhu kukhipha iNkantolo kwenza ukuba isikhulu esilinganayo esihlukanisayo isimiso sezwe. Umthetho sihlola umthetho wezwe nemithetho, njengezenzo zezikhulu.

Emakhulwini eminyaka, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yasebenzisa ukubukeza kokwahlulela ukuze inqanyule ukwahlukana ( Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo, 1954, ivikela inkulumo ekhululekile ( Brandenburg v., 1969]), kanye nokunciphisa ukuvalelwa kwesikhulu ([[FLT:]]] Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 2004]). Amandla awabekelwe ndawo; iNkantolo ngokuvamile ivumelana nezindaba, ikakhulukazi ezindabeni zangaphandle, ikakhulukazi kwezobuzwe, ezingokomthetho nezombuso. Imfundiso yokuma, ukuvuthwa kwezelelwe, ukuvuthwa kwezombangazwe nemingcele yezombangazwe.

I - didiciary Njengesheke

Ijaji lihlola kokubili amagatsha emithetho nezikhulu. Ingaqeda imithetho edluliswa yiSishaya-mthetho futhi isayinwe ngumongameli. Ingayala futhi izenzo zezikhulu eziphula amalungelo noma ezedlula igunya. Ngakolunye uhlangothi, amanye amagatsha ahlola ijaji: umongameli unamajaji, iSigele siyawaqinisekisa, futhi iSishaya-mthetho singawaphoxa. ISishaya-mthetho singashintsha futhi ukubusa kwezinkantolo eziphansi (nakuba kungewona umbuso wokuqala weNkanto enkantolo) futhi sifaka umthetho wemithetho engokomthetho wokugumbuqela ukuba igumbuqe inkantolo. Lokhu kuqinisekisa ukuthi akukho gatsha elinegama lokugcina ngomthetho.

Isimiso Samasheke Nokulinganisela

Ukuhlukana kwemibuso iyodwa ngeke kuvimbele ubushiqela uma igatsha ngalinye lisebenza ngokuzehlukanisa. Ukuhlakanipha koMthetho-sisekelo yisimiso sokuhlola nokulinganisela okunikeza igatsha ngalinye izinga lokulawula phezu kwamanye. UMadison wabhala ku Féderalist No. 51: "Umbuso kumelwe wenziwe ukulwa nesifiso sokuvelela" ngokunikeza igatsha ngalinye izindlela zokumelana nokungenela, uMthetho-Constitution wakha isimiso sokuzilawula.

Umthetho Uhlola Isikhulu

ISivumelwano singanqoba noma senqabe ukumiswa, izivumelwano ze-rafy, ukuphoqelela nokususa umongameli nezinye izikhulu, ukulawula nokuhlola izenzo zezikhulu. Amandla esikhwama semali anamandla kakhulu. I-Chonarent ingayenqaba ukuqoqa izinhlelo noma ngisho nokukhokha izinhlangano ezidukisiwe. Izehlulelo zomthetho zingadalula ukuziphatha okubi nombono womphakathi.

Isikhulu Esiphethe Sihlola Icala

Umongameli angamisa umthetho weveto, abize uMkhandlu ukuba ube nesimiso esikhethekile, futhi atuse izinyathelo. Iveto iyi-sethi enzima kakhulu; kudingeka ukuba iningi eliyisithathu liwulawule, okuyinto engavamile. Umongameli futhi unamandla okuhlanganisa i-Compris Congress, engawuphoqelela ukuba ubhekane nezimo eziphuthumayo. Ngaphezu kwalokho, umongameli angasebenzisa iziyalezo zokuqondisa ukuqondisa imithetho, ngezinye izikhathi akha umthetho ongenakudlula.

Ukwahlulela Kuhlola Zombili Izigatsha

Izehlulelo zihlola imithetho nezenzo eziphethe umthetho-sisekelo. Ichaza imithetho, ixazulula iziphakamiso ngezindlela ezinganwebela noma zilinganise izinhloso zomthetho. Izinkantolo zingakhipha iziyalo zokuvimbela ukugcinwa kwemithetho noma iziyalezo zezikhulu. Izinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme zibopha zonke izinkantolo eziphansi nezikhulu zikahulumeni, uma kubekwa kuphela ukulungiswa komthetho-mthetho-mthetho noma ukumiswa kweNkantolo ngokwayo.

Iziphepho Zezombangazwe Neziyiphutha

Ngaphandle komthetho-sisekelo ongokomthetho, kukhona ukuhlola kwezombangazwe. Umbono womphakathi, ukucubungula imithombo yezindaba, amaqembu enzalo, nokhetho konke kucindezela amagatsha. Umongameli ophambanisa angabhekana nokuncishiswa kwenhlangano noma alahlekelwe ukukhethwa. ISishaya-mthetho esingase sivotelwe. Ijaji elisekela ukwethenjwa umphakathi; uma izimpikiswano zeNkantolo zibhekwa njengeziwubukhohlakali, ukubekwa kwayo ngokomthetho kungaphazamiseka. Ukuhlukaniswa kwemibuso kungasebenza ngokulandelana kwe-democratic mos.

Izinselele Zangaphambili Nokuziphendukela Kwemvelo

Ukuhlukaniswa kwemibuso kuye kwabhekana nezinselele ezinkulu emashumini eminyaka amuva. Ukukhula kwesifundazwe sokuphatha kuye kwafiphaza izintambo phakathi kwamagatsha. Amanxusa azimele anjenge Federal Reserve ne-EPA asebenzisa izishaya-mthetho, izikhulu, nemisebenzi yokwahlulela. Izinkantolo ziye zasungula imfundiso engagunyazi ukulinganisela amandla ombuso oMkhandlu wokudlulisela ezinhlanganweni, kodwa lemfundiso iye yasetshenziswa ngokuguquguquka. Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme i-West Virginia v. EPA [202]) yavuselela kabusha imfundiso eyinhloko, idinga ukugunyazwa okucacile kwezemisebenzi yezentengiselwano yezentengiselwano yezentengo yezentengo yezentengo noma yezombangazwe.

Imithetho ephethe kanye nezenzo zomthetho womuntu ngamunye sekuvame kakhulu. Abameli babo bobabili baye bakhipha iziyalo zokufuduka, ukushintsha kwesimo sezulu, nokunakekelwa kwempilo. Ukusetshenziswa kwamazwi okusayinwa ukubekela izingxenye zomthetho inselele nakho sekuye kwakhula. Le misebenzi ihlola imingcele yegunya lomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo. Izishaya-mthetho ngokuvamile iye yasabela nge-proftware kunokuba ikhiphe umthetho, inciphisa amandla ayo.

Enye inselele ukuhlukanisa. Uma iqembu elifanayo lilawula umongameli noMkhandlu, ukwehlukana kwemibuso kungantengantenga njengoba abaholi bebambisana kunokuba bahlolane. Ngakolunye uhlangothi, uhulumeni ohlukene uholela ekuthatheni imingcele nasekuthatheni uhlangothi olusohlangothini lolwandle. AmaFramers ayelindele ukuvelela ukubheka isifiso, kodwa uma isifiso sihambisana nokwethembeka kweqembu, isimiso singacindezela. Ezinye izazi ziphikisa ngezinguquko ezinjengobungameli obuqinile bobungqungquthela, ukulinganiselwa kwemithetho yezikhulu, noma ukubuyiselwa kwe-partle Relicybuster.

Ukuqhathanisa kwezwe lonke kubonisa ukuthi ukwahlukana kwemibuso yase-U.S. kuqinile kunezimiso zephalamende, lapho isikhulu nendlu yomthetho ifakwa khona. E-U.K., undunankulu uyilungu lephalamende futhi angasuswa ngevoti engagunyazi. Ngokuphambene, isimiso sase-U.S. sidinga ukuphoqelelwa, okuyinqubo enzima. Lokhu kuqina kunikeza ukuzinza kodwa kungabangela futhi inhlekelele uma amagatsha engakholeki.

Isiphetho: Ukukhuthazela Ekude

Ukwahlukaniswa kwemibuso eyamiswa nguMthetho-sisekelo kuseyisisekelo sombuso waseMelika. Akusona isimiso esiwumthetho kodwa isimiso esinamandla esiguqula ngokusebenza, ukuchaza, nokuxabana kwezombangazwe. Ukuqonda indlela izihloko I, II, no III ezisakaza ngayo amandla nendlela yokuhlola nokulinganisela okusebenza ngayo kubalulekile ukuze kube nesabelo sobuzwe. Isimiso sivikela inkululeko ngokuvimbela noma iliphi igatsha elilodwa ekubuseni, kodwa sidinga ukuqapha. Njengoba uMadison axwayisa, "ukuxhomeke kubantu, akungangangangabazi, ukulawula okuyinhloko kukahulumeni; kodwa okuhlangenwe nakho kuye kwafundisa isintu isidingo sezeluleko lwezeluleko zezekelo zenkonzo yesikhashana. Ukuhlukaniswa kwemibuso kuyiqiniso ukuthi ukuvikela okusizayo, futhi kuyaqhubeka ukubumba umbuso wezwe omdala.

Ukuze ufunde ngokwengeziwe, hlola umbhalo ogcwele we-U.S. uMthetho-sisekelo [[FLT: 0] weSivumelwano sombuso . Izibalo ze-FLT [, ikakhulukazi izinombolo 47, kanye nezingu-5], zinikeza abaQinisi iqoqo eliphelele elitholakalayo kusuka ku- [[FLT:] [[FLT]] [FLT]] [FLT:] [FFLT]].[12][12].[12]