Amagama angokomthetho akha umgogodla wesimiso sobulungisa. Kubafundi, othisha, nakunoma ubani ofisa ukusebenza eqenjini lomthetho noma emsebenzini wezomthetho, ukuqonda lamagama ngokuqinile kubalulekile hhayi nje kuphela ekudluliseni ukuhlolwa kodwa nasekusebenzeni kwangempela kwezwe. Ukungaqondi igama elilodwa − njenge "imbangela engalawuleki" noma "imposiso" . Lomqondisi uphula amabinzana abaluleke kakhulu asetshenziswayo ekubekeni umthetho, izinqubo zenkantolo, ubugebengu nomthetho womphakathi, ubufakazi, nokunxusa. Igama ngalinye lichazwa ngolimi olucacile ngomongowodwa, likusiza ukuba uqondise amabhukwana omthetho, amakhonto, nemibiko yezindaba ngokuqiniseka.

Amagama Angokomthetho Ayinhloko Emithethoni

Izikhulu zomthetho eziqaphayo zisebenza endaweni ephakeme lapho ulimi oluqondile luchaza khona imingcele yegunya lazo. Kusukela ngesikhathi isikhulu sisola izenzo zobugebengu kuze kube seqophelweni lokubopha nokubhala, amagama aqondile alawula yonke inqubo. Ukuqonda lamagama kuyawadinga ngokomthetho futhi kuvikele amalungelo omthetho-sisekelo.

[[FLT: 0] Ukubopha kwenzeka lapho isikhulu somthetho sithatha umuntu ejele, silinganisela inkululeko yakhe yokuhamba. IsiHlanzi sesine sidinga ukuba ukuboshwa kusekelwe entweni engenzeka noma imvume. Ngokwesibonelo, uma isikhulu sibona ukweba, singabopha ngokushesha abasolwayo. Ukuboshwa kuyahluka ekuboshweni kwesikhashana (ngokuvamile okubizwa ngokuthi i-Terryse misa), okudinga ukusola okunengqondo kuphela.

Isizathu esifanelekile: Lena inkolelo enengqondo, esekelwe emaqinisweni nasezimweni, ukuthi ubugebengu buye benziwa noma ubufakazi bobugebengu bukhona endaweni ethile. Imbangela efanelekile iyimfuneko ukuze uthole isiqinisekiso sokuseshwa noma uboshwe ngaphandle kwemvume. Ingumngcele ophakeme kakhulu kunensuntlolo enengqondo kodwa ephansi kuno"ngabaza okunengqondo."Ngokwesibonelo, isikhulu esihosho insangu esiphuma emotweni singaba nesizathu sokufuna imoto.

Ukuhlola: Imvume yokufuna imvume yenkantolo egunyaza ukugcinwa komthetho ukuba kuhlole indawo ethile − njengekhaya, imoto, noma ibhizinisi (ukufuna ubufakazi bobugebengu. Kumelwe ichaze indawo okumelwe iphenyelwe futhi izinto zithathwe ngokukhethekile, njengoba kufunwa yiSichibiyelo Sesine. Ngaphandle kwemvume, ngokuvamile kuthathwa njengokungacabangeli ngaphandle kokuba kusetshenziswe (umz. imvume, imvume, izimo ezixeshiwe, noma isenzakalo sokufuna ukuboshwa).

, lamalungelo kumelwe afundwe kumuntu osolwayo ngaphambi kokuphenywa kwemvume. Icala leNkantolo ePhakeme yase-U.S. imanda v. Arizona[ [196], lamalungelo kumelwe afundwe ku-omusolwayo ngaphambi kokuphenywa kwemvume. Isixwayiso sitshela umuntu ukuthi unelungelo lokuthula, ukuthi noma yini athi ingasetshenziswa kubo enkantolo, nokuthi banelungelo lommeli. Uma lamalungelo enganikezwanganikezwangafanelekile, noma yiziphi izinkulumo ezitholakalayo zingafundwa ekuqulweni.

Ukuxoshwa: Ukuxoshwa kuhilela ukungabaza umsoleki osolayo ukuba athole ukwaziswa okungamelwanga. Kuhlukile kukwaziswa okuvamile okuhlangene endaweni. Ukuhlinzelwa kumelwe kwenziwe ngokuvumelana noMirenda nezinye izindinganiso ezingokomthetho ukuze kugwenywe ukuphoqelelwa noma ukuvuma izono okungamanga. Izikhulu zomthetho zithola ukuqeqeshwa okukhethekile ezindleleni zokuphenya ngokomthetho, njengendlela yeReid.

Ukungenisa incwadi: Ngemva kokuboshwa, umcabango uyiswa esiteshini samaphoyisa futhi "ufakwe incwadi" `inqubo ehlanganisa ukuqopha ukwaziswa komuntu siqu, ukuthatha iminwe nezithombe, nokungena emacaleni esimisweni. Ukubhala incwadi kuyisinyathelo sokuqondisa, hhayi isinqumo sokwahlulela secala.

Bail: Bail isiqinisekiso sezimali sokuthi ummangalelwa uzovela enkantolo yesikhathi esizayo. Imali ibekwa umahluleli phakathi nokubonakala kokuqala, uma kucatshangelwa ubukhulu bobugebengu, izingozi zokundiza, nokuphepha komphakathi. Uma ummangalelwa engakwazi ukuthenga ibheyili, angahlala ejele noma afune ukukhululwa ngesithembiso sakhe siqu sokuziveza (isithembiso sokuvela ngaphandle kokukhokha).

Icala: Icala elingokomthetho elikhishwe yijaji elikhulu, ukuthola ukuthi kungenzeka kunesizathu sokukholelwa ummangalelwa owenze icala. Ithatha indawo yesikhalo futhi iqale inqubo engokomthetho yokuqulwa kwecala. Kwezinye izizwe, umshushisi angafaka "imininingwane" esikhundleni salo, okuyinkulumo efushanisiwe yecala ngaphandle kwejaji elikhulu.

Imithetho Eyisisekelo Enkantolo

Kusukela ngesikhathi icala libekwa kuze kube sesokugcina, la magama achaza zonke izinyathelo ezingokomthetho. Ukuwaqamba kahle kusiza abamangalelwa, ofakazi, nochwepheshe bezomthetho ukuba baqonde amalungelo nemithwalo yabo yemfanelo.

Icala: Ukuvela kokuqala kwenkantolo ngemva kokuboshwa noma ukumangalelwa, lapho ummangalelwa efunda khona izikhalo ngokusemthethweni futhi acelwa ukungena esicelweni (icala, hhayi icala, noma umncintiswano). Umahluleli ubuye akhulume ngebheyili futhi amise iseluleko uma ummangalelwa ebekwe indigano. I-Arignig isivikelo esifanelekile.

Ukuya enkantolo: Lena imibhalo ebhaliwe egcinwe amacala. Ezindabeni zomphakathi, izikhalo eziyinhloko ziwukukhononda (inkulumo yombango namaqiniso) nempendulo (impendulo yecala). Ezicaleni zobugebengu, ukuncenga kuhlanganisa ukumangalela noma ukwaziswa, futhi isikhalazo sommangalelwa. UPings uchaza izimpikiswano zokwahlulela.

Ukunyakaza: Yisicelo esingokomthetho esicela inkantolo ukuba ithathe isinyathelo esithile. Izenzo ezivamile zihlanganisa ukunyakazisa (ukucela umahluleli ukuba akhiphe icala), ukunyakaza kwesahlulelo esifingqiwe (icala elivile kuphela), kanye nokunyakazisa ukucindezela (ukufaka ngaphandle kobufakazi obutholakele ngokungemthetho). Izenzo zivame ukunqunywa umahluleli ngaphandle kokuba kube khona umsizi.

Incazelo: Isigaba sangaphambi kwezohlelo lapho izinhlangothi zombili zishintshisana khona ubufakazi nokwaziswa okuhlobene nendaba. Amathuluzi okuthola i-operation ahlanganisa ukufakwa (okanye ubufakazi obungaphansi kwesifungo), uphenyo (imibuzo ebhaliwe), izicelo zokwenziwa kwezincwadi, nezicelo zokungeniswa. Umgomo ukugwema ukumangala lapho kuqulwa futhi kukhuthazwa ubulungisa.

Ukubekwa: Ubufakazi obufunwe ngesithembiso buthathwe ngaphandle kwenkantolo, ngokuvamile ehhovisi lommeli. Intatheli yenkantolo ibhala wonke amagama, futhi amarekhodi asetshenziswa kamuva ekunikezeni imvume noma ekulondolozeni ubufakazi. Izimvume zivamile enkantolo kodwa zenzeka nasemacalani ezigebeqeni ofakazi abangase bangatholakali lapho kuqulwa icala.

[[FLT: 0] Inqubo yokukhetha ijaji ngokubuza abangaba abahluleli bejaji ukuba baphawule ubandlululo noma ubandlululo. Amajaji asemaceleni womabili angabekela inselele i-jarners ngembangela (umz., umkhohlisi uyazi ummangalelwa) noma asebenzise izinselele zokukhulula (amajaji ngaphandle kwesizathu, ngaphansi kwemingcele engokomthetho). UVoirday ubalulekile ekuqulweni ngokulunga.

Icala: Isinqumo esikhishwa abahluleli (noma amajaji enkantolo yebhentshi) ngemibuzo eyiqiniso yecala. Ezicabeni zobugebengu, isinqumo kumelwe sibe "sinecala" noma "singenacala"." Ijaji elilengisweyo liphumele enkantolo engafanele, futhi ukuqulwa kwecala kungalilungisa icala. Ecaleni lomphakathi, isinqumo sinquma icala nezingozi.

Subpoena: Impondo engaphansi iyisiyalo senkantolo esigunyaza umuntu ukuba avele ebufakazini (i-astpoena astipaceum) noma akhiqize imibhalo noma ubufakazi (i-subrena duces tecment). Ukwehluleka ukuhambisana naso kungaphumela ekudeleleni inkantolo, okuphethe izijeziso ezihlanganisa ihlawulo noma ijele.

Appeleal: Ngemva kwesahlulelo sokugcina, umkhandlu olahlekile angacela inkantolo ephakeme ukuba ibukeze amaphutha angokomthetho enkantolo. Izikhalo aziwatholi amacala futhi. Azigxili ekutheni umthetho wasetshenziswa ngokunembile yini. Inkantolo ye-appelte ingaqinisekisa, ibuye iphikise, noma iphinde idlulise icala ngecala eliqhubekayo. Izimemezelo zokudlulisa zihlanganisa ukuvunywa okungafanele kobufakazi, iziyalezo zejaji ezinganembile, noma ukuphatha kabi komshushisi.

Ukuqonda Inkulumo Yomthetho Wesigebengu

Umthetho wesigebengu uchaza ukuziphatha okunqatshelwe ngenxa yokulimaza umphakathi, futhi unikeza izijeziso. lamagama alandelayo ayisisekelo ekuqondeni amacala, iziphetho, nomthwalo wobufakazi.

Icala elingathi sína elijeziswa ngokuboshwa isikhathi esingaphezu konyaka (noma ukufa kwezinye izindawo). Izibonelo zihlanganisa ukubulala, ukudlwengula, ukuphanga ngezikhali, nokushushumbisa izidakamizwa. I-Felonies ivame ukuhlelwa ngokwezinga eliyi-degree (ukubulala kokuqala kungumthetho onzima kakhulu). Amafeyinti angalahlekelwa amalungelo athile, njengokuvota noma ukuphatha izibhamu.

Misdemeor: Icala elingengathi sína kakhulu, elivame ukujeziswa unyaka owodwa ejele, ihlawulo, noma inkonzo yomphakathi. Amaphutha avamile ahlanganisa ukweba okuncane, ukuhlasela okulula, ukuziphatha okungahleleki, ne-DUI (icala lokuqala). Amaphutha avame ukuqulwa ezinkantolo eziphansi (umz., i-panensenti noma inkantolo yesifunda).

Isu elibi kakhulu: Uhlobo lwecala olungathi sína, ngokuvamile ukwephulwa okuncane komthetho noma umthetho, njengethikithi lomgwaqo noma ukulahlwa. Iziphambeko zijeziswa ngokukhokhwa kuphela futhi aziphathi yisikhathi sasejele. Azibhekwa njengecala ezindaweni eziningi, ngakho ilungelo lokungenela icala lomsizi lingase lingasebenzi.

I-defanti:[ Emthetho wobugebengu, umuntu omangalelwa ngokuphambana icala. Ummangalelwa ubhekwa njengongenacala kuze kube yilapho etholakele enecala ngokungenakungabaza. Banelungelo lokumelelwa ngokomthetho, lokukhuluma nofakazi, nokuthula (ISichibiyelo sesibilili).

Ukuqulwa kwecala: iqembu lomthetho likahulumeni elinecala lokuletha amacala obugebengu kummangalelwa. Abashushisi kumelwe bafakazele zonke izici zobugebengu ngaphandle kokungabaza okunengqondo. Abashushisi (abameli bezezigodi, ama-Attney ase-U.S.) banesinqumo esiphawulekayo ekunqumeni ukuthi kufanele yini kubekwe icala, ukuthi yini okufanele ibekwe icala, nokuthi kufanele imangalelwe, nokuthi kufanele idluliswe yini.

Isigaba somthetho esimelela ummangalelwa. Icala lingaba ummeli wangasese noma umlweli womphakathi (omiswe inkantolo uma ummangalelwa engenaso iseluleko). Indima yokuzivikela ukubekela ubufakazi bomshushisi inselele, ukuphakamisa isivikelo esingokomthetho (njengendlela yokuzivikela noma yokusangana), nokuqinisekisa amalungelo ommangalelwa ukuba avikeleke.

Isho into enengqondo yokungaqiniseki: Indinganiso ephakeme yobufakazi efunekayo ekuqulweni kwecala lobugebengu. Uma abahluleli benokungabaza okunengqondo ngecala lommangalelwa, kumelwe bakhululwe. Lendinganiso ivikela abantu abangenacala ekuvumeni okungalungile. Ivame ukuchazwa ngokuthi "ukuqiniseka" ukuthi ummangalelwa unecala.

Plea Bargain: Isivumelwano phakathi komshushisi nokuzivikela lapho ummangalelwa enxusa khona icala (kaningi enecala eliphansi) ukuze athole isigwebo esilula ngokwengeziwe noma ukuxoshwa kwezinye izikhalo. UPlea ufaka izicelo zokuxazulula izigebengu eziningi e-United States. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi bangacindezela abamangalelwa abangenacala ukuba bamangalelwe ukuba bamangalelwe ngecala, kodwa futhi balondoloza imithombo futhi banciphise ukunqwabelana kwenkantolo.

U-Reopardy ka-kubini: Isivikelo somthetho-sisekelo (ISichibiyelo se-Fot) esivimbela umuntu ukuba aqulwe kabili icala elifanayo ngemva kokulahlwa noma ukuvunywa. Lomthetho awusebenzi uma icala lokuqala liphela enkantolo engafanele noma uma icala lihilela amakhosi ahlukene (umz., umbuso nohulumeni wesenzo esifanayo).

Imithetho Yomthetho Yomphakathi Ebalulekile

Umthetho wesizwe usingatha izingxabano phakathi kwamaqembu azimele − abantu abazimele, amabhizinisi, noma amanxusa kahulumeni — lapho ikhambi ngokuvamile liyinxeba lemali noma ukukhululeka okungalawuleki. Amagama ahlukile ngezindlela eziyinhloko kumthetho wobugebengu.

I-Platodiff: Iqembu eliqala icala lomphakathi ngokufaka isikhalo. Umfundisi uthi ummangalelwa wabalimaza futhi ufuna isinxephezelo noma omunye ukukhululeka. Uma umuntu elimele, ungumuntu olimele; uma ephukile esivumelwaneni, ungowohluliwe.

I-Defentant (Civil): Emthethweni womphakathi, ummangalelwa uvikelwa icala. Ngokungafani nomthetho wobugebengu, ummangalelwa ecaleni lomphakathi akamangalelwa ngobugebengu, kuthiwa uye wephule isibopho noma isivumelwano. Indinganiso yobufakazi yi-"ubufakazi" (cishe hhayi), indinganiso ephansi kunasemacalani obugebengu.

Ukulahlekelwa: Imbuyiselo yemali ekhokhelwa ummangalelwa ngenxa yokulahlekelwa. Iminganiso ingaba impoqo (izindleko ezingokoqobo, njengezindleko zezokwelapha, iholo, nobuhlungu nokuhlupheka) noma isijeziso (esihloselwe ukujezisa ummangalelwa ngenxa yokuziphatha okungathandeki). Kwezinye izimo, inkantolo ingakhokha ngokuzisholoza (inani elincane) uma ilungelo elingokomthetho liphulwa kodwa kungalahlekelwangakho.

Imfanelo engokomthetho yokubangela umonakalo. Icala lingasekelwe ekunganakini (ukuhluleka ukwenza ngokunakekela okunengqondo), icala eliqinile (ukungazenzisi kungakhathaliseki iphutha, njengasemikhiqizweni ekhubazekile), noma ekuziphatheni okubi ngenhloso. Ijaji linquma icala elisekelwe ebufakazini obunikezwayo ecaleni.

Isivumelwano sokuzithandela phakathi kwamaqembu ukuxazulula icala ngaphandle kokuqulwa kwecala. Izinqumo ngokuvamile zihilela ukukhokhwa kwemali futhi ziyimfihlo. Icala lezakhamuzi eziningi lihlala ngaphambi kokuqulwa kwecala ngoba zombili izinhlangothi zigwema ukungaqiniseki nezindleko zokulifuna. Ukuhlala kungavela kunoma isiphi isigaba, ngisho nangemva kokuba isinqumo sifinyelelwe (ukudluliswa kwesicelo).

I-Injuct: Isinqumo senkantolo esifuna umbambi sicelo sokwenza (noma ukugwema) isenzo esithile esikhethekile. Ngokwesibonelo, umahluleli angakhipha uhlelo lwesikhashana lokuvimbela inkampani ekukhipheni imfihlo yezohwebo. I-Injtions amakhambi alinganayo, isho ukuthi inikezwa uma umonakalo wemali unganele.

Tort: Icala lomphakathi elibangela ukulimala kothile, eliholela ekubekeni icala elingokomthetho. AmaTort ahlanganisa ukunganaki (izingozi zezimoto), amatort (assault, ihlazo), kanye nomthetho oqinile we-tort (imikhiqizo ethathelwa isigwebo). Umthetho we-tort uhlukene nomthetho wesivumelwano nomthetho wobugebengu.

Isenzo: Ukumangalelwa okubekwe enkantolo umuntu oyedwa noma ngaphezulu ngenxa yeqembu elikhulu (isigaba) elihlanganyela iziphakamiso ezifanayo. Izenzo zekilasi zivamile emacalani ahilela imikhiqizo ekhubazekile, ukukhwabanisa, noma ukucwaswa kwemisebenzi. Inkantolo kumelwe iqinisekise ikilasi, okusho ukuthi izindaba ezivamile zidlula lezo ezivamile. Izinga lokuhlala ngokuvamile zidinga ukuvunyelwa nesaziso sezezekilasi.

Umthetho olawula ukulinganiselwa: Umthetho omisa isikhathi esigcwele ngemva kwesenzakalo okumelwe kuqalwe kuso umthetho. Uma umthetho uphela, ukuzimela kuyavinjelwa. Imingcele yesikhathi iyahlukahluka ngokwendlela yecala (umz., ukumangalelwa komuntu siqu ngokuvamile kuba neminyaka emibili kuya kwemitha emithathu). Ubugebengu obuthile (njengokubulala) abunamthetho olinganiselwe.

Amagama Ayinhloko Awubufakazi Nezinqubo Ezingokomthetho

Ukuqonda la magama kubalulekile ekwakheni icala, noma eliyinselele.

Ubufakazi obungakholeki: Ubufakazi obuhlangabezana nezimfuneko zomthetho futhi obuvunyelwe ukuba bunikezwe abahluleli. Ubufakazi kumele bube obufaneleke, buthembeke, futhi butholakale ngokomthetho. Ubungakholeki ubufakazi. [1] Obufana nenzwabethi noma ubufakazi obungabanjwa ngaphandle kwemvume.

indlebe iyasho: Isitatimende esingaphandle kwenkantolo ukuze kufakazelwe iqiniso lendaba. Ukuzwa ngokuvamile akunakwenzeka ngoba umuntu odeclarant (umuntu owasho lenkulumo) akanakuphindwa. Kukhona okungajwayelekile, njengalokho okushiwo ngenxa yokuxilonga, amazwi avusa inkanuko, noma amarekhodi ebhizinisi.

Isibopho sokuqinisekisa icala lomuntu ngendinganiso ethile. Ezimweni zobugebengu, ukuquliswa kwecala kuthwala umthwalo ngaphandle kokungabaza okunengqondo. Ezimweni zomphakathi, ummangalelwa uthwele umthwalo ngokufaka ubufakazi. Abanye bavuma ukuvikela (njengalokho okuzenza).

UFakazi: [ Umuntu ofakaza ngaphansi kwesifungo ngamaqiniso ahlobene nalendaba. Ofakazi ababekwayo bangafakaza kuphela kulokho abakubonile ngokwabo; ofakazi abangochwepheshe banganikeza imibono ekwazini kwabo, njengalabo abahlaziyi be-fonsic noma odokotela. Bonke ofakazi bafanelwe ukuphenyelwa.

UFakazi othembekile: Ufakazi onolwazi olukhethekile, ikhono, okuhlangenwe nakho, ukuqeqeshwa, noma imfundo evunyelwe ukunikeza ubufakazi bombono. Inkantolo kumelwe ifanelekele uchwepheshe futhi iqinisekise izindlela zayo zithembekile ngaphansi kweze-DNA, izingozi] Indinganiso (isimo) noma indinganiso ye-FORT . Ofakazi bezentengiselwano (ezinye izigaba).

I-disovory: esekukhulunywe kakade ezimisweni zenkantolo, kodwa futhi igama lobufakazi obuyisisekelo. Ukuthola kokubili kuqinisekisa ukuthi kunakho ukufinyelela ubufakazi ngaphambi kokuqulwa kwecala, kuvimbela "emacaleni ngokucasha"" emacaleni obugebengu, ukuqulwa kwecala kumelwe kwambule ubufakazi bokucathula ngaphansi Brady v. Maryland.

Amagama Avamile Ekumangaleleni Nasekunxenxeni

Ngemva kwecala, inkantolo ibeka isigwebo, ukudlulisa amacala kungalandela. Lamagama ahlanganisa izinqubo zangemva kwenkantolo nezinselele zokuhlola.

Isijeziso esiyalelwe inkantolo ngemva kwesinqumo sobugebengu noma isicelo. Isigwebo singahlanganisa ukuboshwa, ukugcinwa, ukuhlawuliswa, inkonzo yomphakathi, noma ukubuyiselwa. Abahluleli balandela iziqondiso zomthetho futhi bacabangele izici eziphazamisayo. Kwezinye izimo, imisho ebophekile iyasebenza.

Isibonakaliso: Inkathi yokuqondisa emphakathini esikhundleni sokuboshwa (noma ngemva). Ummangalelwa kumelwe avumelane nezimo ezinjengokubika isikhulu sokuqulwa kwecala, ukugwema izidakamizwa, nokugcina umsebenzi. Ukujeziswa kungaphumela ekuxoshweni nasekuboshweni.

IParole: Ukukhululwa kwasekuqaleni ejele elibuswayo, elinikezwa ibhodi elikhipha isigwebo ngemva kwengxenye ethile yesigwebo. I-Parole ihlukile ekugwetshweni." Ukukhishwa kwejele, kuyilapho i-parole ikhululwa ngemva kwejele. Izifunda eziningi ziqede i-parole ngenxa yamacala athile.

HAbeas Corpus: Isenzo esingokomthetho esivumela isiboshwa ukuba sibeke inselele ngokomthetho wokuboshwa kwaso. Izicelo ze-habeas corpus zingafakwa enkantolo kahulumeni ngemva kwamakhambi kahulumeni ziphele, zisho ukuthi ukwephulwa komthetho ngokomthetho kuwusizo olungaphumeleli lweseluleko noma ukusungulwa kobufakazi obungamanga. Kuyisivikelo esiyisisekelo ekuboshweni okungekho emthethweni.

: ['inkantolo edlulisa icala] lapho ithumela icala enkantolo enkantolo equlweni ukuze kuqhutshwe ukuqulwa kwecala ngokuvumelana nokukhipha kwayo umthetho. Ngokwesibonelo, uma inkantolo ithola ukuthi ubufakazi buvunywe ngokungafanele, bungaphinde buvunywe. Isiyalo esiphindaphindiwe siphinde sibekwe icala elisha. I-Remand isho ukuthi iziphi izimpikiswano okumelwe ziphinde zicatshangwe.

Isiphetho

Ukwazi amagama angokomthetho akuyona indaba yokuthatha ngekhanda izincazelo; kungokokuqonda indlela amagama abumba ngayo amalungelo, izinqubo, nemiphumela. Noma ungumfundi olungiselela umsebenzi womthetho noma ukugcinwa komthetho, uthisha ochaza isimiso sobulungisa, noma isakhamuzi esihamba ngendaba engokomthetho, ukujwayelana nalamagama kukunika amandla okuhlanganyela ngokuphumelelayo nokusekela ubulungisa. , [FLD] A. U-US.