Isisekelo Somthetho - sisekelo Senqubo Efanele

Inkulumo ethi "ukuqhubekela phambili kwenqubo yomthetho" ibhekisa emuva kuMagna Carta (1215), lapho iNkosi uJohn yavumelana khona ukuthi akukho muntu okhululekile ozoncishwa ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla ngaphandle kokwahlulela okungokomthetho kontanga yakhe noma umthetho wezwe. Lomqondo wafakwa e-U.S. Umthetho-sisekelo ngeSimende sesihlanu (1791), esisebenza kuhulumeni wezwe, futhi kamuva iSiphendu se-145 seSincisombululo (1868), esinwebela isivikelo esifanayo embusweni sombuso nohulumeni bendawo. Zonke lezi zinhlangothi ezimbili zakha inqubo yokulawula ye-U. Inqubo ye-Pronated projectivemental i-Remigration (1791), esetshenziswa yinqubo efanelekile ye-jurisplustration (1791) enikezwa yimithetho engokomthetho engokomthetho, futhi ivumelana nenqubo yomthetho kahulumeni, noma i-Celanisa, noma i-Celanisa i-Clanston engokomthetho engokomthetho olungileyo, ngenxa yezizathu ezingokomthetho, ezingokomthetho.

Izinsika Ezimbili Zenqubo Elindelekile: Isimiso Esivamile Nesingaphansi

Inqubo ejwayelekile

Inqubo efanele amakheli uhulumeni wenza kanjani lapho ephuca othile ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla. Imfuneko eyisisekelo ukuthi umuntu athole isaziso esanele nethuba elibalulekile lokuzwakala phambi komenzi wesinqumo ongakhethi. Izinqubo eziqondile ezidingekayo ziyahluka kuye ngomongo, ukulinganisa isithakazelo somuntu siqu esiphangweni, ingozi yokuncishwa kwephutha, kanye nesithakazelo sikahulumeni ekufezekeni. Izibonelo zezeluleko zihlanganisa:

  • Ukuqulwa kwecala: ilungelo lokululeka, lokubhekana nofakazi, lokuqulwa kwecala, nokuvikela.
  • Amacala abulalayo: ilungelo lokuncintisana ngokuthathelwa indawo nokuthola isaziso ngaphambi kokuba uhulumeni athathe isinyathelo esiphelele.
  • Ukumiswa kwamalungelo abazali: imfuneko yobufakazi obucacile nobugculisayo futhi ngokuvamile ukuqulwa kwecala phambi kwejaji.
  • Ukuhluleka kuyazuzisa ukuphika: ilungelo lokuqulwa icala phambi kwenhlangano nokubukezwa kokwahlulela kamuva.

Icala eliyingqophamlando iMathews v. i-Elditridge yasungula ukuhlola okunezingxenye ezintathu zokulinganisela ukuze kuthole ukuthi iyiphi inqubo edingayo. Izinkantolo zithwele (1) isithakazelo somuntu siqu esithintekile, (2) ingozi yokungahloniphi okunganembile ngaphansi kwezimiso zamanje nenani lokuvikelwa okulindelekile, kanye (3) isithakazelo sikahulumeni, kuhlanganise nemithwalo ye-fiscal neyabaphathi. Lokhu kuhlola kuye kwasetshenziswa ezinhlalweni zezelelwe, kusukela ezikhathini zezokugcinwa kwezentengiselwano zomphakathi kuya ezimisweni zomphakathi. Ngakho, inqubo efanelekile, ayiyona isiqinisekiso esisodwa-kulinganayo; isilinganiso esiguquguqukayo esiqinisekisa ukuthi isilinganiso esiyisisekelo esiyisisekelo ezimweni ezithile.

Inqubo Engeyona Inkinga

Substantive due process is far more controversial. It holds that certain fundamental rights are so deeply rooted in the nation's history and traditions that the government may not infringe upon them, no matter how fair the procedures. Instead of asking how the government deprives, substantive due process asks whether the government has a sufficiently compelling reason to interfere with a constitutionally protected liberty. The Supreme Court first explicitly recognized substantive due process in Lochner v. New York (1905), where it struck down a law limiting bakers' work hours as an interference with the "liberty of contract." That era ended in the 1930s, but the doctrine was revived later to protect rights such as:

  • [[QULT:0] kwesokudla sokushada[ [ i-Live v. Virginia, 1967; [Obergefell v. Hodges, 2015].
  • [[QUL:0] kwesokudla sokusebenzisa ukuvimbela [ (Griswold v.Connecticut, 1965]).
  • ekukhipheni isisu [ Roe v. Wade[, 1973, ibekwe umthetho ku [ Dobs v. Jackson’s Health Organization, 2022].
  • [[QULT:0] Ekulungeni kumzali ozibusayo (Pierce v. Society of Odade ], 1925; Troxel v. Granville[], 2000]).
  • [[NT.:0] Ebuqothweni bomzimba (umk., Shashington v. Glucksberg, 1997, mayelana nokusiza ukuzibulala).

Ukuhlolwa kwanamuhla kwenqubo edingayo ecacile ku-Shahington v. Glucksberg, kudinga ukuba ukuhlolwa kusekelwe ngokuqondiiie (1) "kusekelwe kakhulu kulomlando namasiko" (2) "Kusekelwe emqondweni wenkululeko ehleliwe. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi loluvivinyo alucacile futhi luvumela abahluleli ukuba bafake imibono yomuntu siqu; abasekeli baphikisa ukuthi kudingekile ukuvikela izinkolelo ezimncane nezingaqondani ezingokwenhlalo. I-Dos, enziwakuyihlulele [FLT:] [FLT] [FLT] [FL:4] [FLD] [FLD]] [FF:] i-FLT], incikene kakhulu, incike kakhulu edinga ukulawulwa yinqubo engokomthetho engokomthetho "yombilini enzisiwe" nomthetho omisiwe "kakhululwe yilenyusiwe."

Amalungelo Abalulekile: Ayini Nakuphi Avela Kuwo

Amalungelo okuzimela azimele yinkululeko yangempela kanye nemibandela abantu abanayo ngokumelene nohulumeni. Angabalwa (ngokungakho kuhlelwe ngokusemthethweni eMthethweni) noma angafakwa (esetshenziswe ngombhalo, isakhiwo, noma umlando woMthetho-sisekelo). Amalungelo awenziweyo ahlanganisa inkululeko yeSigqizo sokuqala sokukhuluma, ukucindezela, ingqungqungquthela, nenkolo; iSimemezelo sesibili lungelo lokugcina nokuphatha izikhali; iSiphendulo Sesine esimelene nokuphehlwa okungacabangeli; nesimiso seSichibiyelo sesishiyagalombili sesijeziso sesijeziso sonya nesobugqila. Amalungelo angenawo amalungelo aphezulu asuka kumalungelo angaphansi eSigebezi, avikelwa yizimiso zokuvikela noma ukuvikelwa kwezimiso zenkululeko ezithile ze-Genetic. Kodwa manje, isilinganiso esiqinile sale ngokomthetho, isilinganiso esiqinile, isilinganiso semithetho yomthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho oqinile, kodwa iqinisekisa amalungelo okuthi "enqanyuselwayokuhluzo noma ukunqanyulwa noma ukunqanyulwa kwabantu abathile" futhi ukwenziwa abantu abagciniwe"

Amalungelo e-FLT:1]: uhulumeni kumele abonise isithakazelo esiphoqelelwe futhi asebenzise izindlela ezilinganiselwe kakhulu. Amalungelo angenamingcele noma alawulwa uma uhulumeni ehlangabezana nezinga elithile lokuhlola. Kukhona amalungelo ayisisekelo, izinkantolo zisebenzisa isisekelo sokuhlola : umthetho udinga ukuhlolwa kuphela okuhlobene nengqondo nesithakazelo esiqinile sikahulumeni. Izinga lokuhlola ngokuvamile linquma ukuthi ilungelo elingelona elivamile liyonqoba yini ngokumelene nomthetho obekwe inselelekile. Isibonelo, ilungelo lokukhuluma ngenkululeko libalulekile futhi lihlola ngokuqinile, kuyilapho umthetho udinga isisekelo sokuzihlola okuqinile [:]:

Umehluko Oyinhloko Phakathi Kwenqubo Efanele Namalungelo Angaphansi

Nakuba inqubo efanele namalungelo angaphansi kungena emiqondweni, kufeza imisebenzi ehlukile:

  • [[NT.:0] Focus: Inqubo elindelekile inge [ uprocess]. izinqubo kanye nezivikelo uhulumeni azenza ngazo izinqumo ezithinta abantu ngabanye. Amalungelo e-Substanti amalunga ne uthothobance[ `inkululeko yangempela nemibandela abantu abanayo.
  • Inqubo yokuvikela: inqubo elindelekile idinga izinqubo ezilungile ngaphambi kokuba uhulumeni athathe okuthile. Amalungelo angaphansi awenqabela uhulumeni ngokuqondile ukuba athathe izenzo ezithile, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi inqubo injani.
  • I-Expamps: Uma isimo sifuna ukuqeda amalungelo akho obuzali, inqubo efanelekile idinga ukuzwa nesaziso. Kodwa ilungelo elingaphansi kumzali wengane yakho livimbela isimo ekususeni umntwana ngaphandle kwesizathu esiphoqelelayo, ngisho noma ukuzwa kuphelele.
  • Izimpande ze-Constitunical:[ Inqubo efanelekile yesimiso ithathwa ngokuqondile embhalweni weSichibiyelo sesihlanu neseshumi nane. Inqubo efunekayo iyimfundiso eshiwoyo evela ezigqeni ezifanayo, kodwa amandla ayo kanye nobubanzi bayo kuphikisana kakhulu.
  • Incazelo engokwenkolo: Inqubo efanelekile engokomthetho iyaziqonda futhi ixhumene namaqiniso aleyondaba. Inqubo edingayo engaphansi kwe-[Fot:0] ihilela izahlulelo ezinkulu zenani ngenkululeko nokuziphatha, eziholela empikiswaneni enkulu.

Isenzo, umehluko ungafiphaza. Ngokwesibonelo, ilungelo lokushada liyinqubo efanelekile elungile (ukuzwa) kanye nelungelo elingaphansi (iSiphendulo Sesithupha sokuqulwa kwecala lomphakathi yijaji elingakhethi). Ngokufanayo, ilungelo lokushada ilungelo elingaphansi elivikelwe yinqubo efanelekile, kodwa ukushada kungadinga futhi ukuvumelana nezimfuneko ezingokomthetho ezifana nokuthola ilayisense. Isihluthulelo siwukuthi inqubo efanele ivikela inqubo elungile, kuyilapho amalungelo angaphansi kwe-quatan echaza ukuthi inzuzo yenkululeko.

Isizathu Sokuba Zombili Zidingeke Ebuthweni Lentando Yeningi Lomthetho - sisekelo

Izivikelo ezimbili zenqubo efanele namalungelo angaphansi zibalulekile ekuvimbeleni ukubusa ngonya nokuqinisekisa ukuthi abantu abazona izikhonzi zikahulumeni. Lokhu kusebenza njengendlela yokubhula amandla okuzibusa ngokuphoqa uhulumeni ukuba alandele imithetho emisiwe. Kuqinisekisa ukuthi ngisho nalapho umbuso ususa impahla yomuntu noma inkululeko, yenza ngokukhanyayo futhi ngethuba lokuncintisana nalesisenzo. Lokhu kuqinisa ukwethenjwa komphakathi esimisweni somthetho. Amalungelo angaphansi kwemithetho, kanti, akhipha izifunda zomuntu siqu ukuthi uhulumeni awunakungena, hhayi ukuthi inqubo yawo elungile kangakanani. Bavikela amaqembu amaqembu ahlukene nentando yeningi, bawavumele ukuba enze izinqumo zabantu ngokujule mayelana nokuphila kwabo, njengalowo okungamele ukushada, noma ukuhlangana nabantwana, noma ukuhlangana kwezimiso zokubusa.

Zihlanganiswe ndawonye, lezi zimfundiso ezimbili zakha isihlangu esibanzi kokubili ukuxhashazwa kwemizwa nokuphamba. Uhulumeni olandela izinqubo eziphelele kodwa ophika amalungelo ayisisekelo (isibonelo, umbuso onikeza ukuzwa okuphelele ngaphambi kokuveza isigaba esincane) usengunyakazi. Ngokuphambene, uhulumeni oqaphela amalungelo angaqondakali kahle kodwa onganikezi indlela yokuwalwela (isig., isiqinisekiso sokukhuluma esingagunyaziwe) unikeza isivikelo esiyize. UMthetho-U.S., nge-Sivumelwano-Mkhankaso we-Creaus no-Exporand Claus noBill of Rights, uhlose ukuvikela kokubili ukwehluleka.

Izimpikiswano Zanamuhla Nempikiswano Eqhubekayo

Inqubo ephakathi kwenqubo efanele namalungelo angaphansi iyaqhubeka idala izimpikiswano ezinkulu zomthetho nezezombangazwe. Izimpikiswano ezintathu zamanje zibonisa izigxobo:

1. Isisu Ngemva [[QL:0] AmaDob

Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme [2022] ku- Dobts v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization [[FT:1] yasusa ilungelo lomthetho-sisekelo elingokomthetho lokukhipha isisu, inquma ukuthi yayingagxilile kakhulu emlandweni. INkantolo yathi inqubo efanelekile ayikhuseli ukukhishwa kwesisu, ukubuyisela indaba ewumthetho wemithetho yomthetho. Lokhu kuye kwaholela emsebenzini wemithetho enzima yemithetho kahulumeni, eminye ivimbela kakhulu ukufinyelela nokuyivikela. Impikiswano manje igxile ekutheni noma i-[[FLT:] [FLT] [FFF:]] [FLT] [3] iyakunikeza ezinye izimo zezizathu ezingawaphula amalungelo ahlukene, njengasekuwokugcineni ukuvikela imishado (Foctive]] kusekwethubele imvume) noma kuvikelelwa imvume yomthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho omthetho owembuyiseka kakhulu? [Fod Trust] Izindlela ezivamile zezimiso zomphakathi ezivamile], zivumela izikhulu ukuba zivumela izikhulu kakhulu

Ukulahlekelwa Ikhono Lokuthutha Nokuthumela Izwe

Izenzweni ezingekho ngokomthetho e-United States, kuhlanganise nalezo ezingenaso isimo esingokomthetho, zinelungelo lokuvikela inqubo ethile engokomthetho, nakuba kungewona wonke amalungelo asebenza kwizakhamuzi. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yathi ukuxoshwa kuyi "icala", kodwa leyo nqubo edinga ukuqulwa kahle, ukumelelwa okungokomthetho kwezinye izimo ( Padilla v. Kentucky, 2010), nethuba lokusungula ukuvuleka kwemvume yokukhulula. Nokho, uhulumeni ungavimbela abantu ngabanye ukuba babhekane nezikhathi ezithatha isikhathi eside, ikakhulukazi uma benza izingozi zesizwe. Izingalo ezingaphandle zomkhaya ezifanele ukuhlangana, ukusebenza, noma ukufinyelela ezinkantolo ezinhlalweni ezilinganiselwe. Inqubo yokwehlalo oluphakathi kwesizwe nokuncishiswayo, ikakhulukazi inqubo yokuzwa kwemvume yokuzwa.

3. Ukulawulwa Kwezibhamu NeSichibiyelo Sesibili

Ilungelo lokuphatha futhi nokuphatha izingalo, manje eliqashelwa njengelungelo lomuntu eliphansi i-Divolitunt of Columbia v. Heller (2008]) futhi ifakwe ngokumelene nezifundazwe ] McDonald v. Chicago[[[FLT]]] [2010]] [2010] [ingamandla okulawula kuphela lapho iwela ngaphandle "isiko elingokomlando lemithetho yezikhali." iNkantolo Ephakeme yesinqumo engu 20222 [ku-[FLT:]] iNew York State Rhifle &lamp; Pisilson Association v v [FLT]) idinga ukuba imithetho edubulayo'isiko nalebhuthi elivamile. I-Bruption ifuna ukugcinwa kwalebhulomu eliphakathi kwemiyambubhiyo. Inqubo esekelwe kuvinywe ngomlando, futhi iveza inqubo engcono kakhulu, futhi i-procc.

Izicelo Ezingokoqobo Zezakhamuzi Nochwepheshe Bezomthetho

Ukuqonda umehluko phakathi kwenqubo efanele namalungelo angaphansi kwemfundo. Izakhamuzi azikho nje ngokwemfundo. Uma uhulumeni ehlela ukubekela inselele izenzo zikahulumeni inselele yokushayela, ukususa izinzuzo zenhlalakahle, noma ukuxosha othile emakhaya omphakathi, umuntu angafuna inqubo efanele neyokuzwa. Uma uhulumeni edlulisela umthetho ovimbela uhlobo oluthile lwenkulumo noma ukuvimbela umbhangqwana ukuba ushade, inselele ilula: umthetho uphula ilungelo eliyisisekelo uhulumeni ongenakulivimbela ngaphandle kokuzithethelela okuphoqeqedileyo. Ngakho i-athone ne-FLT: [FFFF] [FFF] [5] [5] [5]

Kubenzi bezimiso, umehluko uhlela indlela imithetho ehlelwa ngayo. Umthetho othwesa umthwalo elungelweni eliyisisekelo (njengokhetho noma umshado) kumelwe ulungiswe kancane futhi unikeze isithakazelo esishukumisayo. Umthetho omane nje wakhe inqubo yemvume yokudoba noma ukwakha uthango udinga isisekelo esinengqondo kuphela. Ukuhlukanisa izindawo ezimbili kuyasiza ekugwemeni ukuvinjelwa ngokweqile futhi kuqinisekise ukuthi izithiyo zemvelo azisetshenziswa njengezabambo zokuvikela izikhali ezingaphansi kwe-cquanstation.

Isiphetho

Inqubo efanelekile namalungelo angaphansi yizikhundla ezimbili ezivikela inkululeko yomuntu ngamunye emthetho-mthetho-sisekelo waseMelika. Omunye uqinisekisa uhulumeni ukuba adlale ngemithetho elungile lapho elwa nomuntu othile; omunye uphawula imingcele yalokho uhulumeni angakwenza nhlobo. Nakuba inqubo emisiweyo inikeza ukubikezelwa nokulandisa, ukuhlukanisa okulindelekile, ukuvikela ngokujulile inkululeko yomuntu siqu ebekelwe ngaphaya kwenqubo ethile engokomthetho. Zombili izimfundiso ziyaqhubeka ziguqulwa, zibunjwe yizezo, zishintshwa izindinganiso zezezomthetho, futhi zishintsha amafilosofi okwahlulela. Kunoma ubani ofuna ukuqonda inqubo yomthetho, ukuqonda umehluko phakathi kwalemiqondo emibili kubalulekile futhi ukwembula indlela ukulondoloza ngayo inkululeko engangeni ngenqubo eyodwa, kodwa ngohlaka oluhlangene oluphathelenelwayo.