Table of Contents

Imithetho-mithetho kahulumeni isebenza njengezincwadi eziyisisekelo ezingokomthetho ezilawula isimo, amalungelo, nokuphila kwansuku zonke esifundazweni ngasinye. Nakuba uMthetho-sisekelo we-United States umisa uhlelo lukahulumeni, imithetho-mthetho kahulumeni ngokuvamile incasakazi kunezidingo nokukhathazeka okukhethekile kwendawo. Ukuqonda indlela le mibhalo ethinta ngayo imiphakathi yendawo efuna ukuqonda izakhiwo ezingokomthetho ezibusa izifundazwe, izikole, amabhizinisi, nezinkonzo zomphakathi.

Isisekelo Sikahulumeni Wendawo Somthetho - sisekelo

ISichibiyelo seshumi kuMpatho-sisekelo we-United States senza uhulumeni wendawo ube yindaba kahulumeni kunokuba ube umthetho kahulumeni, iSichibiyelo seshumi sigcine amagunya anika imibuso. Lesi simiso esiyisisekelo sisho ukuthi amaMelika amaningi athintana kakhulu nohulumeni bawo wezwe nohulumeni wendawo. Izinkonzo nezimiso ezithinta ukuphila kwansuku zonke (kusukela eminyangweni yamaphoyisa), emitatsheni yezincwadi, nasezikoleni zokushayela namathikithi okupaka.

Imithetho-mthetho yoMbuso imisa imingcele engokomthetho esetshenziswa ohulumeni bendawo. Izifunda zikahulumeni zingahlelwa ngezindlela eziningi, njengoba zichazwa ngemithetho-sisekelo kahulumeni, futhi zibizwa, ngokwezindlela ezihlukahlukene, amalokishi, amadolobhana, amadolobhana, amadolobhana, noma amadolobha. Leligunya lomthetho-sisekelo lidlulela ezinhlotsheni ezihlukahlukene zezinhlangano zikahulumeni zendawo, kuhlanganise nezifunda noma izifunda zomlilo ezinikeza izinkonzo ezikhethekile emingceleni ephakeme.

Amalungelo Nokulondeka Komuntu Ngamunye Ngamunye Ngaphansi Komthetho - sisekelo KaHulumeni

Izivikelo Ezibanzi Kunomthetho Ovamile

Umthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni unikeza isivikelo esikhulu samalungelo kunawoMthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni. Zonke izifundazwe zinelungiselelo elivikela lamalungelo noma afana nawo, futhi kwezinye izimo linikeza isivikelo esikhulu sokukhuluma, ukunyathelisa, namalungelo okuhlangana kunalawo asekelwe kuMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S.. Lokhu kusekelwe esimisweni sokuthi akukho lutho oluvimbela inkantolo kahulumeni ukuba ithole ukuthi umthetho - sisekelo wayo unikeza isivikelo esingaphezulu samalungelo, kuhlanganise namalungelo acacile, uma kuqhathaniswa nalawo atholakala eMthethweni womthetho-sisekelo noma ku-R.

Izinhlobonhlobo zamalungelo avikelwe ezingeni likahulumeni ziyamangalisa. Izifundazwe 39 ziqinisekisa ukutholakala kwekhambi elingokomthetho kulabo abalimalayo, 11 zivikela ngokusobala ilungelo lokuzimela, ama-26 avikela ngokucacile ukulingana kwabobulili obubodwa, kanye namashumi amane avikela ilungelo lokuvota. La malungelo omthetho-sisekelo akha amalungelo agunyazwayo athinta ngokuqondile ukuphila kwansuku zonke kwezakhamuzi kanye nesivikelo esingokomthetho emiphakathini yazo.

Ukuchazwa Komthetho - sisekelo KaHulumeni Ozimele

Kusukela ngasekupheleni ko-1970 nasekuqaleni konyaka ka-1980 izinkantolo zikahulumeni ziye zasebenzisa imithetho-mthetho yazo ukuze zinikeze inkululeko eveza inkululeko ngaphandle kweSichibiyelo Somthetho-mthetho Wokuqala wase-U.S., futhi kwezinye izimo, izinkantolo zikahulumeni ziye zakhetha ukunikeza isivikelo esingaphezulu ngaphansi kwemithetho-mthetho yazo kunangaphansi kweSichibiyelo Sokuqala. Le ncazelo ezimele ivumela izinkantolo zikahulumeni ukuba zisabele ezindinganisweni zomphakathi nasezinkathazweni kuyilapho zigcina imithetho ewumthetho - sisekelo.

Recent examples demonstrate this principle in action. A handful of states have language in their constitutions guaranteeing residents "the right to a clean and healthful environment", which has been used to address climate change litigation. Similarly, the Oklahoma Supreme Court ruled that the state constitution protects the right to abortion in life-threatening situations, finding that "the Oklahoma Constitution creates an inherent right of a pregnant woman to terminate a pregnancy when necessary to preserve her life".

Amalungelo Omthetho - sisekelo Ahlanganisayo

Imithetho-mithetho kahulumeni iyaqhubeka iguqukela ngezinqubo zokulungisa ezibonisa ukushintsha kwezindinganiso zomphakathi. Ngo-2021, abavoti bamaMaine bavumela ukulungiswa kwelungelo lokudla, nakuba kungekho lungelo elinjalo kuMthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni. Ezinye izinguquko zamuva nje ezigunyaziwe zihlanganisa "ilungelo eliyisisekelo lokuhlela nokuhlela nokudla ngokulingana" e-Illinois, enqabela futhi ukumiswa kwemithetho kahulumeni ephazamisana nalelo lungelo.

Isimiso Negunya Lobubusi Bendawo

Ukubusa kuka-Dillon kanye negunya lendawo elilinganiselwe

Ubuhlobo phakathi kohulumeni bendawo nohulumeni bendawo buhluke kakhulu ebuhlotsheni bezwe nombuso. Ngaphandle kwesimo somthetho-mthetho, ohulumeni bendawo basesihambweni esingokomthetho samazwe, abaye bamisa ukubusa okunamandla, ngokwendlela isigaba sezombangazwe esingasebenzisa ngayo lawomandla anikezwa ngokuqondile yigunya eliqondisayo. Lesimiso, esaziwa ngokuthi iDillon's Rule, ngokuphawulekayo sivimbela uhulumeni wendawo ukuba alawule ezifundazweni eziningi.

Izinhlangano zikahulumeni zingasebenzisa kuphela amandla eziwanike wona ngokuqondene, lawo noma ashiwo ngokufanelekile noma ngesenzakalo esiqondiswe ngokucacile emagunyeni anikezwe ngokuqondile, futhi lawo abalulekile ezintweni ezimenyezelwayo nasezinjongweni zenhlangano, hhayi nje eziwusizo, kodwa ezibaluleke kakhulu. Lencazelo evimbelayo isho ukuthi ohulumeni bendawo kumelwe basebenzise ngokucophelela igunya labo lomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo nelomthetho lapho bekhuluma ngezidingo zomphakathi.

Ithonya elisebenzayo lomthetho kaDillon lihluka kakhulu. Umthetho kaDillon uchaza amandla alinganiselwe amanye amazwe awanika ohulumeni basemadolobheni ukuze bazenzele izinqumo, futhi kulezi zimo, umbuso ulondoloza amandla okwenza izinguquko, ngezinye izikhathi noma edolobheni ngaphandle kwemvume yawo. Ezimweni ezimbi kakhulu, uMthetho-sisekelo wezwe wango1901 e-Alabama wanquma ukuthi noma iluphi ushintsho kuhulumeni wendawo kumelwe luhlongozwe futhi luvunyelwe njengokulungiswa komthetho-sisekelo wombuso, udale imingcele ebalulekile ekutholeni ukuvumelana noshintsho lwendawo.

Ukubusa Kwasekhaya Nokuzenzakalela Kwasendaweni

Ukuze kulwisane nokuvinjelwa komthetho kaDillon, amazwe amaningi aye athatha izinhlelo zokubusa ekhaya kumthetho-sisekelo wawo. Kusukela esifundeni sase Missouri ngo-1875, imibuso yaqala ukushintsha imithetho-mthetho yayo ukuze inikeze ukubusa kwezindawo zendawo. Umthetho we Home ugunyazwe ngumthetho kahulumeni noma uhulumeni futhi unika uhulumeni ukuzibusa okuthile kuhulumeni wendawo, uma uhulumeni wendawo emukela izimo ezithile, usikisela ukuthi isigaba ngasinye sikahulumeni sinombuso ohlukile, futhi ngenxa yalokho, amandla kahulumeni akufanele athathele imingcele egunyeni likahulumeni wendawo kwezinye izindawo.

Ngaphansi kwemikhankaso eminingi yokubusa kwasekhaya, izakhamuzi zomphakathi wendawo zibhala futhi zisebenzise ishadi lazo siqu elisebenza njengohlobo lomthetho-sisekelo wedolobha. Le nqubo inika imiphakathi amandla okuvumelanisa izakhiwo zazo nezidingo zendawo kanye nokuthanda kwazo. Nokho, imithetho-sisekelo yombuso iyahluka ngokwezinga lamandla eziwanika ohulumeni bendawo, zidala iqoqo legunya lendawo eliyindilingane kulo lonke izwe.

Umqondo wokuzibusa kwendawo uhlanganisa izilinganiso eziningi. Ukuzibusa kwendawo kunezakhi ezintathu: okokuqala, abantu bendawo kumelwe bakwazi ukulawula ohulumeni bendawo; ohulumeni bendawo kumelwe babe negunya lokwenza inqubo ngokuphathelene nezindaba zendawo; futhi okwesithathu, imithombo yemali eyanele yokusebenzisa izinto eziza kuqala zendawo. Ngaphandle kwazo zonke izakhi ezintathu, ukuzilawula kwangempela akukwazi ukufinyelelwa.

Izinhlobo Zokwakhiwa Kukahulumeni Wendawo

Umthetho-mthetho kahulumeni ugunyaza izinhlobo ezihlukahlukene zikahulumeni wendawo ukuba zifeze izinjongo ezihlukene. Ohulumeni bezigodi bagunyazwe ngomthetho-mthetho wezwe nangezimiso, futhi izifunda nezifunda ezilinganayo zikha isigaba sokuqala sokuphatha izifundazwe. Imibuso ethile kahulumeni yezifunda iyahlukahluka kakhulu phakathi kwezifundazwe, kanti ezinye izifunda zisebenzisa ngokuyinhloko njengezifunda zokwahlulela kuyilapho kwezinye amazwe, izifunda zinemibuso ebanzi ezindlini, imfundo, ezokuthutha nezokuzilibazisa.

Ohulumeni bedolobha noma bamaloli bagunyazwe ohulumeni bendawo abagunyazwe ezindaweni zombuso ezingokomthetho ezingokomthetho eziseNyakatho mpumalanga naseMidestern, ezisungulwe ukunikeza uhulumeni ovamile indawo echaziwe, ngokuvamile ngokwengxenye yendawo yesifundazwe. Ohulumeni bakamasipala bagunyazwe ngohulumeni bendawo abagunyaziwe ngemithetho-mthetho-sisekelo nemithetho, abasungulwe ukunikeza uhulumeni jikelele indawo emisiwe, ngokuvamile ehambelana nesikhungo sabantu kunokuba kuvumelane nesinye sezindawo lapho isifunda sihlukaniswa khona.

Ukukhokha Imali, Ukukhokha Intela Negunya Lezezimali

Iziyalezo Zomthetho - sisekelo Ngezimali Zendawo

Umthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni uthonya kakhulu indlela imiphakathi yendawo ephakamisa futhi isebenzise ngayo imali. Imithetho-mthetho yoMbuso ilinganisela ukukhokha izikweletu kwendawo, futhi ngezinye izikhathi izifundazwe ezikhethekile zenzelwe ukuxhasa imisebenzi emikhulu ngeminye imisebenzi yomphakathi. Lezikweletu zomthetho zenza ohulumeni bendawo basebenzise izimali ezisekelwe ezinkonzweni zomphakathi, ngezinye izikhathi ziholele ekudlondlobeleni kwezifunda ezikhethekile.

Izinhlelo zendawo zixhaswa ngezimali ngenhlanganisela yezintela zempahla, intela yokuthengisela, izintela zezentengiselwano, intela yezemisebenzi, kanye nosizo lukahulumeni nohulumeni, futhi abanye ohulumeni bendawo bafaka intela ephansi kakhulu. Igunya elikhethekile lokukhokha intela elitholakala kohulumeni bendawo lixhomeke ngokuphelele ekutheni yimiphi imithetho-sisekelo nemithetho evumelayo, ukwenza umehluko ophawulekayo emasikweni endawo ngamazwe ahlukene.

Ukwabiwa Kwemithombo Yemvelo Nokulingana Kwayo

Amalungiselelo omthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni ngokuphathelene nentela nokusakazwa kwempahla athinta ngokuqondile izinga lezinkonzo zomphakathi emiphakathini yendawo. Idolobha nezifunda zikahulumeni ukukhokha izinkonzo kudinga ukusungula isimo esingcono sezomnotho nesebhizinisi, futhi ukuze kukhokhelwe lezi zinkonzo, amadolobha kanye namabhizinisi kumelwe kusize ukuchuma okuhle nesimo sezulu esiqondile ukuze kukhange futhi kugcinwe amabhizinisi nemisebenzi eyakha isikhungo esiqinile sentela.

Umbango phakathi kokulawula kwezwe nokuzibusa kwendawo ubonakala kakhulu ekuxhaseni kwemfundo. Njengoba imfundo yomphakathi yaya inzima kakhulu, futhi njengoba uhulumeni waxhasa ngezimali ingxenye enkulu yezindleko zemfundo, indima kahulumeni ezindabeni ezibalulekile njengohlelo lwezifundo nezisebenzi zesikole ezikhulisiwe, futhi namuhla kunokukhona ukungezwani okuqhubekayo phakathi kwamandla ezindawo nezwe okulawula izikole emphakathini. Lokhu kuqhubeka kubonisa imibuzo ebanzi ngokulinganisela okufanelekile kwamandla phakathi kombuso nohulumeni bendawo.

Ukusetshenziswa Kwezwe, Ukuzilungisa Nokuvuselela Indawo Ezungezile

Isisekelo Somthetho - sisekelo Sokuqamba Igunya

Njengoba iUnited States yakhula ngobukhulu nangendlela eyinkimbinkimbi, igunya lokunquma izindaba ezinjengezebhizinisi, intela, umthetho wendawo washukumiseleka kohulumeni bezwe nohulumeni wezwe, kuyilapho ohulumeni bendawo babelawula izindaba ezinjengokuhlelwa kwezindawo, intela yempahla, namapaki omphakathi, ngomqondo "wokuhlela" ukuvela eU.S. phakathi nawo - 1920, lapho umthetho wombuso wanikeza khona amalokishi athile noma ezinye izindikimba ezibusayo zendawo igunya lokunquma ukuthi izwe lalisetshenziswa kanjani.

I-Zoning imelela enye yezindlela ezibonakala kakhulu zokuveza ukuthi igunya lomthetho-sisekelo lithinta imiphakathi yendawo. Ngemithetho yokukhokha, ohulumeni bendawo balawula ukusetshenziswa kwendawo, ukuphakama, ukuphakama, nokuhlukaniswa kwezindawo zokuhlala, ezentengiselwano, nezezimboni.

Isivikelo Sendawo Ezungezile Emthethweni - sisekelo KaHulumeni

Amanye amaqembu emithetho kahulumeni ahlanganisa isivikelo sendawo esicacile esinika imiphakathi yendawo amandla okubhekana nezinkinga zemvelo. La malungiselelo omthetho - sisekelo akha amalungelo agunyazwayo angasetshenziselwa ukubekela izinselele imisebenzi yokuthuthukisa intuthuko, ukuvikela imvelo nokuqinisekisa izinga lendawo ezungezile lezizukulwane ezizayo. Ulimi oluqondile nezingako zalezi sivikelo kuyahluka kakhulu ezifundeni, okubonisa izinto eziza kuqala ezisendaweni nezinselele zendawo ezungezile.

Izimiso zendawo ezungezile ezisekelwe egunyeni lomthetho - sisekelo wezwe zithinta izinqumo zezwe ezisetshenziswayo, izindlela zokuthuthukisa, nokuhlela umphakathi. Ohulumeni bendawo kumelwe balinganisele intuthuko yezomnotho nemithetho yendawo ezungezile engokomthetho, ngokuvamile besebenzisa izindawo eziyinkimbinkimbi ezingokomthetho ukuze bakhonze imiphakathi yabo ngokuphumelelayo.

Ukubusa Imfundo Nesikole

Isimiso Somthetho - sisekelo Semfundo Yomphakathi

Imfundo imelela enye yezindawo ezibaluleke kakhulu lapho umthetho-mthetho kahulumeni uthinta khona imiphakathi yendawo. Ngokomlando, umthetho kahulumeni wamane wagunyaza (futhi ngezinye izikhathi kudingwa) imiphakathi yendawo ukuba kusungulwe izikole zomphakathi, futhi izikole zahlelwa, zalawulwa futhi zaxhaswa umphakathi wendawo.

Le mithetho engokomthetho inquma ukuthi amakomiti ezikole akhethwe kanjani, linegunya elingakanani, nokuthi iziphi izimali ezixhaswa ngezimali. Izimfuneko eziqondile ziyahlukahluka kakhulu ezifundazweni, zidala izimiso zemfundo ezihlukahlukene ezweni lonke.

Izinselele Zokuxhasa Isikole Nomthetho - sisekelo

Izimali zesikole zimelela ingxenye ephikisanayo kakhulu yomthetho-mthetho wezwe. Izifunda eziningi ziye zabhekana nezinselele zomthetho-sisekelo ezimisweni zazo zezimali zesikole, futhi abamangali baphikisa ngokuthi ukuhlukanisa izikhungo phakathi kwezifunda ezicebile nezimpofu kuphula umthetho ongokomthetho weziqinisekiso zemfundo efanayo. Ukushintshwa kwezezimali zesikole somphakathi kwaba yimpikiswano kahulumeni ngemva kweNkantolo ePhakeme yase-San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez (1973)

Lezi zinselele zomthetho - sisekelo ziye zaholela ezimweni eziningi eziphawulekayo, lapho izishaya - mthetho ziyala ukuba zibukeze izinqubo zokuxhasa imali ukuze kuqinisekiswe ukuthi imithombo yemfundo itholakala ngokulinganayo. Imiphumela yalezi zimpikiswano ithinta ngokuqondile imiphakathi yendawo ngokunquma izinga lezimali ezikhona ezikoleni, izinga lezemfundo, nemithombo etholakala kubafundi.

Ukuphepha Komphakathi Nomthetho Ophoqelelwayo

Igunya Lomthetho - sisekelo Lamandla Amaphoyisa

Umthetho-sisekelo woMbuso umisa uhlelo lokugcinwa komthetho nomthetho endaweni. Ohulumeni bendawo banikeza izimpahla eziningi zomphakathi nezinkonzo, njengokuphepha komphakathi, imfundo, nezwe, okuthi abaningi bathinte abantu emikhayeni yabo, emakhaya nasezindaweni ezizungezile. Igunya lokugcina iminyango yamaphoyisa, izinkonzo zomlilo, nezimiso zokusabela ngokuphuthuma ligeleza kumthetho-mthetho-sisekelo wezwe nangokomthetho.

Izinhlangano eziqondisa ukugcinwa komthetho zendawo ezigunyazwe umthetho-mthetho ogunyazwe umthetho wezwe nemithetho. Lezi zihambeli zihlanganisa amandla okuphoqelela imithetho yobugebengu, ukugcina ukuhleleka, nokuvikela ukulondeka komphakathi. Nokho, amaphoyisa asendaweni kumelwe futhi ahloniphe isivikelo somthetho-sisekelo, kuhlanganise nalezo ezitholakala kuhulumeni nombuso. Uma imithetho yezwe inikeza isivikelo esikhulu kunomthetho kahulumeni, ukugcinwa komthetho wendawo kumelwe kuvumelane nendinganiso ephakeme.

Ukwahlulela Ngesigebengu Namalungelo Omthetho - sisekelo

Izivumelwano zomthetho ngokomthetho-sisekelo woMbuso mayelana nenqubo yobugebengu, ukuseshwa nokuphangwa, namalungelo abamangalelwa athinta ngokuqondile indlela ukugcinwa komthetho wendawo nezinkantolo ezisebenza ngayo. Eminye imithetho-mthetho kahulumeni inikeza isivikelo esiqinile kubamangalelwa bezelele ubugebengu kunaleyo efunwa nguMthetho-sisekelo kazwe, ithinta yonke into kusukela ekumeleni kwezimoto kuya ekuhlolweni okukhulu kobugebengu. Lokhu kuthuthukisa isivikelo esibonisa izindinganiso ezicacile zombuso kanye nezinto eziza kuqala ngokuphathelene nokulinganisela phakathi kokuphepha komphakathi nenkululeko yomuntu ngamunye.

Ukuqonda ukuthi lezi zimiso zomthetho zisebenza kanjani kubalulekile kochwepheshe bezomthetho futhi kuthinta amalungelo abantu abahilelekile esimisweni sokwahlulela somthetho - sisekelo endaweni.

Ukuthuthuka Kwezomnotho Nokuhlelwa Kwebhizinisi

Isimiso Somthetho - sisekelo Sesimiso Sezezomnotho Sendawo

Ohulumeni bendawo bazama ukudonsa amabhizinisi nokwandisa izomnotho zabo ngokwezindlela ezinjengokunikeza izinhlelo zokuthuthukisa intela, izisusa zokukhululeka, nokulungisa; ukunikeza izakhiwo ezidingekayo; nokuhlangana nezinye izinhlangano zendawo njengezindawo zezentengiselwano nezinhlangano zentuthuko yezomnotho. Igunya lokuphishekela lamasu okuthuthukisa ezomnotho lixhomeke kulokho imithetho yezwe nezimiso ezikuvumelayo.

Izimiso zomthetho-mthetho mayelana nentela, imali esetshenziswa umphakathi, kanye nemithetho yezomnotho zimisa imingcele ohulumeni bendawo abangayisebenzisa. Eminye imithetho-mthetho yombuso ibeka imingcele eqinile ezinhlotsheni zezisusa zezomnotho ohulumeni bendawo abangazinikeza, kuyilapho eminye inikeza ukuqondisisa. Lemigoqo yomthetho-sisekelo ithinta ngokuqondile ikhono lemiphakathi lokukhanga abaqashi, ukudala imisebenzi, nokwakha intela yabo.

Ukulungisa Nokulungisa Amabhizinisi

Ohulumeni bendawo balawula amabhizinisi ngokuqondisa, ukuvumela, nokuqondisa, kodwa kuphela ngokwezinga eligunyazwe imithetho-mthetho kahulumeni nemithetho. Izinga legunya lezindawo lokuqondisa lihluka kakhulu phakathi kwezifundazwe, abanye benikeza amandla abanzi okubusa ekhaya futhi abanye bagcina ukuqondisa okuqinile kwesimiso sezohwebo.

La mandla alawulayo athinta imiphakathi yendawo ngokunquma ukuthi hlobo luni lwebhizinisi olungasebenza, lapho lungathola khona, nokuthi yiziphi izindinganiso okumelwe zihlangabezane nazo.

Izinto Zokuhamba Nezakhiwo Eziyinkimbinkimbi

Igunya Lomthetho - sisekelo Lezimiso Zokuhamba

Imithetho-mithetho yoMbuso ithonya izimiso zendawo zokuhamba ngamalungiselelo aphathelene nokuxhasa izakhiwo zezemfundo, ukwakhiwa kwezindawo ezikhethekile, kanye negunya lokulawula. Izifunda ezikhethekile ezikhathalela ezokuhamba ezimpikiswaneni ziye zavela ngoba ezinye izinkinga zinqamula imingcele yohulumeni bendawo, futhi isifunda esikhethekile singase sidalwe ukuxazulula inkinga ethile ephakathi kwezehlulelo.

Ohulumeni bendawo bathembele egunyeni lomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni ukuze bakhe futhi balondoloze imigwaqo, amabhuloho, izimiso zokuthutha zomphakathi, nezinye izisekelo zokuhamba. Ukulinganiselwa kwemithetho-mthetho kanye nemithetho ekhokhisayo kuthinta ngokuqondile ikhono lemiphakathi lokusekela intuthuko yezinto zokuhamba. Ezimweni eziningi, ohulumeni bendawo kumelwe bafune imvume yezokuvota ngezindlela zokuhamba, njengoba kufunwa ngamalungiselelo omthetho-sisekelo.

Ukufundiswa Kwemithetho Nemingcele Yomthetho - sisekelo

Ukuxhaswa kwemisebenzi yezesisekelo yendawo kusebenza phakathi kwemingcele engokomthetho ezikweletini nasezintela. Lemigoqo iphoqelela ohulumeni bendawo ukuba bahlele izimali eziyisisekelo futhi ngokuvamile idinga imishini yokusungula izimali. Izifunda ezikhethekile, ukuqoqa intela, kanye nokubambisana komphakathi ngasese kumelela amanye amathuluzi ohulumeni bendawo asetshenziswayo ukuze basebenze ngaphansi kwemingcele engokomthetho-sisekelo kuyilapho kuhlangatshezwana nezidingo zezakhiwo.

Amalungiselelo omthetho mayelana nokuxhasa isisekelo sezimali athinta izinga nezinkonzo ezibalulekile ezikhona emiphakathini yendawo. Ukusukela ezimisweni zamanzi nezendle elikhucululwayo kuya emapaki nasezindaweni zokuzilibazisa, isisekelo esisekela ukuphila kwansuku zonke sixhomeke egunyeni lomthetho-sisekelo lohulumeni lendawo lokuphakamisa izimali futhi benze imisebenzi emikhulu.

Ukunakekela Impilo Nezinkonzo Zomphakathi

Indima Kahulumeni Wasendaweni Ekunakekeleni Impilo

Umthetho-sisekelo woMbuso umisa uhlelo lwezinkonzo zikahulumeni wendawo ezihilela ukunakekelwa kwempilo nezezenhlalo. Abanye ohulumeni bendawo baphethe izibhedlela zomphakathi, imitholampilo, nezinkonzo zezokwelapha eziphuthumayo ezigunyazwe ngemithetho kahulumeni nezimiso. Izinga laleligunya lihluka kakhulu phakathi kwezifundazwe, abanye benikeza amandla amakhulu okusingatha izidingo zempilo zomphakathi nabanye abavimbela ukuhileleka ekuthwaleni kwempilo yendawo.

Iminyango yezempilo yomphakathi endaweni ithola igunya layo emalungiselelweni omthetho-sisekelo wezwe nasemthethweni. Lezi zikhungo zikhuluma ngezindaba ezisukela ekuvimbeleni izifo nasemfundweni wempilo kuya ekuhlolweni kwezindawo zokudlela nasezingozini zempilo. Ukuphumelela kwemizamo yezempilo yomphakathi ngokwengxenye kuxhomeke egunyeni lomthetho-sisekelo nengcebo etholakala kohulumeni bendawo.

Izinkonzo Zezenhlalo Nemithetho - sisekelo

Ohulumeni bendawo bavame ukusebenza njengendlela eyinhloko yokuletha izinkonzo zezenhlalakahle, ngisho nalapho ukusekela nokuqondisa kwesimiso kuvela emithonjeni kahulumeni nohulumeni.

Ubuhlobo bomthetho - sisekelo phakathi kohulumeni bendawo nohulumeni buthinta indlela izinkonzo zezenhlalakahle ezinikezwa ngayo nezixhaswayo. Imiphakathi yendawo kumelwe ilinganisele izimvume zezwe nezidingo nemithombo yendawo, ngokuvamile isebenzisa izimfuneko zomthetho - sisekelo eziyinkimbinkimbi nezingokomthetho ukuze ikhonze izakhamuzi zayo ngokuphumelelayo.

Ubuhlobo Bezishaya - mthetho Nokubambisana

Isimiso Somthetho - sisekelo Sokubambisana Kwesifunda

E-United States, izakhamuzi ziye zamelana nemizamo yokuqinisa, futhi ziye zaba nokuhlakanipha okukhulu ekutholeni izindlela zokuxhumanisa izinkonzo zomphakathi kuyilapho zilondoloza ubuqotho bemiphakathi yazo yendawo. Umthetho - sisekelo woMbuso uvumela lokhu kubambisana ngokugunyaza izivumelwano zohulumeni, iziphathimandla ezihlangene, nezinhlangano zokuhlela izifunda.

Ukubambisana kwezifunda kuvumela ohulumeni bendawo ukuba baxazulule izinkinga ezidlula imingcele elawula imingcele yezindawo kuyilapho belondoloza inkululeko.

Umngane wombuso wendawo

Izikhulu zendawo ngokuyinhloko zinomthwalo wemfanelo ezakhamuzini zendawo, futhi imiphakathi yendawo iphakamisa inzuzo yayo, iminyango yezindaba zomphakathi ekhona ukuze nje inikeze izinkonzo kohulumeni bendawo, hhayi ukuba zengamele imisebenzi yabo. Nokho, izinga lokuhileleka kukahulumeni liyahluka kakhulu. Ezinye izifundazwe zisebenza cishe njengokungathi zikhuthaza imiphakathi yazo yendawo, kuyilapho ezinye izifunda zinezici eziphakathi kakhulu futhi zilawula ngokucophelela imisebenzi yemiphakathi yazo yendawo.

Lezizindlela ezihlukahlukene zokusebenzelana kwezwe nendawo zibonisa amasiko ahlukile omthetho - sisekelo namasiko ezombangazwe. Ukuqonda uhlelo oluqondile lomthetho - sisekelo esifundeni ngasinye kubalulekile ekuqondeni indlela ohulumeni bendawo abasebenza ngayo kanye negunya abanalo lokusingatha izidingo zomphakathi.

Ukuhlanganyela Kwezakhamuzi Nokubusa Ngentando Yeningi

Amalungiselelo Omthetho - sisekelo Entando Yeningi Yendawo

Umthetho-sisekelo woMbuso umisa uhlelo lokuthatha isinyathelo ngentando yeningi endaweni. La malungiselelo anquma indlela izikhulu zendawo ezikhethwa ngayo, amagunya abavoti okuqala umthetho noma ukukhumbula izikhulu, kanye namathuba akhona okuhileleka ngokuqondile kwezakhamuzi ekwenzeni izinqumo zendawo. Amadolobha eNew England achazwa ngesiko likahulumeni wendawo oqondiswa yimihlangano yamadolobha — imihlangano ivulekele bonke abavoti ukuze baveze imibono yabo ngenqubo yomphakathi.

Inyathelo lokuqala, i-apendum, i-apendum, nokukhumbula okukhona ezizweni eziningi kunikeza izakhamuzi igunya eliqondile lomthetho-mthetho lokuhlela isimiso sendawo futhi kugcine izikhulu zinecala.

Ukubona Kahle Nokulandisa

Amalungiselelo omthetho ngokomthetho kahulumeni ngokuphathelene nemihlangano evulekile, amarekhodi omphakathi, nokubonakala kwangaphandle kukahulumeni kuthinta ngokuqondile indlela ohulumeni bendawo abasebenza ngayo nendlela izakhamuzi ezingahlanganyela ngayo ekubuseni. Lezi zimfuneko zomthetho-sisekelo ziqinisekisa ukuthi ukwenza izinqumo endaweni kwenzeka ngokombono womphakathi futhi amarekhodi kahulumeni ahlala efinyeleleka ezakhamuzini.

Izinqubo zomthetho - sisekelo zokulandisa, kuhlanganise namalungiselelo okuhlola izimali, ukubika, nezindinganiso zezimiso zokuziphatha, kuyasiza ekuqinisekiseni ukuthi izikhulu zendawo zifeza isithakazelo somphakathi.

Izibonelo Eziwusizo Zomphumela Womthetho - sisekelo Emphakathini

Ukulima Nezwe Kusebenzisa Izinqumo

Izinqumo zendawo ziveza indlela igunya lomthetho-sisekelo elikuthinta ngayo ukuphila kwansuku zonke. Uma izwe lomphakathi elisebenza ngokuhlala, ngokwezentengiselwano, noma ngokwezezimboni, lisebenzisa amandla agunyazwe ngumthetho-sisekelo wombuso. Lezi zinqumo zinquma isimo somphakathi, izindinganiso zempahla, nezingalo zokuphila. Izakhamuzi ezingavumelani nezinqumo zomthetho-mthetho zingazibekela inselele ngokusekelwe kumalungiselelo omthetho mayelana namalungelo empahla, inqubo efanele, kanye nesivikelo esilinganayo.

Ngokwesibonelo, isinqumo sikahulumeni wendawo sokubuyisela indawo yezolimo ukuze kuthuthukiswe ezentengiselwano kumelwe sivumelane nezimfuneko zomthetho-mthetho wezwe ukuze kuqashelwe umphakathi, kuqalwe, kuthathwe futhi kwenziwe izinqumo ezinengqondo. Abanikazi bempahla abathintelwe ukuhlelwa kabusha kwezindawo bangacela isivikelo somthetho-sisekelo ukuba sibeke inselele uma bekholelwa ukuthi kuphula amalungelo abo noma kudlula igunya likahulumeni wendawo.

Imingcele Yesigodi Nezimali Esikoleni

Ukuhlelwa kwesikole nokuxhaswa kwezimali kubonisa ithonya elikhulu lomthetho - sisekelo wezwe emiphakathini yendawo.

Ezifundeni lapho izinkantolo zithole khona ukuthi izimiso zemali yesikole azivumelani nemithetho yezobushiqela, imiphakathi iye yathola izinguquko ezinkulu endleleni imfundo exhaswa ngayo ngokwezimali. Izifunda ezicebile zingabona ukulawulwa kwazo kwemfundo kuncipha, kuyilapho izifunda ezimpofu zingathola ukusekelwa okukhuliswa uhulumeni. Lezi zinqumo zomthetho-mthetho zibuye zishintshele phambili indlela yemfundo futhi zithinte izinqumo zemikhaya mayelana nendawo yokuhlala.

Izimiso Zomphakathi Zokuphepha Nomthetho

Izimiso zokuphepha zomphakathi zisebenza phakathi komthetho-sisekelo wezwe omiswe. Uma umphakathi unquma ukusebenzisa amaphoyisa omphakathi, ukumisa imithetho yezikhathi zomthetho wezwe, noma ukulawula izibhamu, kumelwe iqinisekise ukuthi lezi zinqubo zivumelana nezimfuneko zomthetho-sisekelo wombuso. Ukuvikelwa komthetho-sisekelo okhuliswe kuhulumeni wombuso ngamalungelo abantu kungase kulinganisele lokho ohulumeni bendawo abangakwenza, ngisho nalapho bekhuluma ngezinkathazo zomphakathi ezingokomthetho zokuphepha.

Ngokwesibonelo, uma umthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni unikeza isivikelo esiqinile esiyimfihlo kunoMthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni, umthetho wezwe kumelwe uvumelane nendinganiso ephakeme lapho uhlola noma uhlola. Lezi zimfuneko zomthetho-sisekelo zithinta ngokuqondile indlela iminyango yamaphoyisa esebenza ngayo kanye nezinqubo zophenya ezingazisebenzisa.

Imithetho Yendawo Ezungezile Nokusetshenziswa Kwezwe Lendawo

Izimiso zendawo ezungezile ezisekelwe emalungiselelweni omthetho - sisekelo wezwe zithinta izinqumo zendawo ngezindlela eziningi. Izinhlangano ezivikela indawo ezungezile ezisekelwe emthethweni zingaba negunya elikhulu lokuvimbela ukuthuthuka, ukuvikela imvelo, nokuphoqelela izindinganiso zendawo ezungezile.

Ohulumeni bendawo ezifundazweni ezinamalungiselelo angokomthetho-mthetho alwela indawo ezungezile bangasebenzisa lezisivikelo ukuze bathethelele imithetho yokwakha eqinile, izivikelo zokuhlalisa inhlabathi, nezindinganiso zohlobo lomoya. Lemithetho ithinta abanikazi bempahla, abathuthukisi, namabhizinisi kuyilapho ivikela izinga lendawo ezungezile kwizakhamuzi zamanje nezesikhathi esizayo.

Izinselele Nokucindezeleka Ebuhlotsheni BoMbuso Nasendaweni Ezungezile

Ukukhululwa NoMbuso Ukungabunaki Igunya Lendawo

Enye yezinselele ezibaluleke kakhulu imiphakathi ebhekene nayo ukucindezelwa kweziphathimandla zendawo. Izishaya-mthetho zikahulumeni zingasebenzisa ukuphakama kwazo komthetho-mthetho phezu kohulumeni bendawo ukuze zilawule imithetho yendawo futhi zivimbele imiphakathi ukuba ikhulume ngezinkinga zendawo. Lokhu kuhlenga kuye kwanda ezindaweni ezinjengomthetho weholo olinganiselwe, imithetho yendawo ezungezile, nokulawula izibhamu.

Uma izifundazwe zilulaza iziphathimandla zendawo, imiphakathi ilahlekelwa ikhono lokusabela ezimweni zendawo nasezinkonzweni ezithandwayo. Lokhu kuphikisana phakathi kokufana kwezwe nenkululeko yendawo kuphakamisa imibuzo eyisisekelo ngokuphathelene nokuhanjiswa okufanele kombuso esimisweni sikahulumeni. Izinhlangano ezifuna ukulondoloza ukulawula kwendawo kumelwe zisebenzise izithiyo zomthetho-mthethweni kuyilapho zikhuthaza izinguquko zomthetho ezithinta ukwenza izinqumo zendawo.

Ukudamba Okungaphendulwanga

Imithetho-sisekelo kahulumeni ingafuna ukuba ohulumeni bendawo banikeze izinkonzo ezithile noma bahlangabezane nezindinganiso ezithile ngaphandle kokunikeza imali enele. Lemiyalo engagunyaziwe icindezela izimali zendawo kanye nemiphakathi ephoqelela ukuba yenze ukukhetha okunzima mayelana nokunika imithombo yempahla. Ohulumeni bendawo kumelwe bavumelane nemithetho engokomthetho ngisho nalapho ukwenza kanjalo kudinga ukunyusa izintela, ukuhlukanisa ezinye izinkonzo, noma ukuzuza izikweletu.

Ukungezwani phakathi kwemithetho kahulumeni nemithetho yendawo kuqokomisa ukubaluleka kwengxenye yesithathu yenkululeko yendawo: Ohulumeni bendawo kumelwe babe nemithombo yemali eyanele ukuze benze lemisebenzi futhi banikeze izinkonzo uhulumeni aye wabenza banomthwalo wemfanelo ngazo, njengoba ukulawula kwendawo bekuyoba yiphutha uma ohulumeni bendawo bebengelutho kakhulu ukuba bangasebenzisa izinhlelo abantu babo abafisa ukuzisebenzisa.

Ukulinganisela Ukufana Nokuguquguquka Kwezindawo

Imithetho-mithetho kahulumeni kumelwe ilinganise isidingo sokufana kwezwe lonke ngokuhlonipha ukuhlukahluka kwezindawo kanye nenkululeko. Ezinye izindaba zizuza ezindinganisweni ezifanayo ezisezweni lonke, kuyilapho ezinye ziqondiswe kangcono ngokwenza izinqumo zendawo ezibonisa lokho okuthandwa umphakathi kanye nezimo. Ukuthola ukulinganisela okulungile kuyinselele eqhubekayo ethinta indlela ohulumeni bendawo abangakhonza ngayo izakhamuzi zabo ngokuphumelelayo.

Lokhu kulingana kuyahluka phakathi kwezifunda nezindawo zezimiso. Kunomehluko omkhulu ebuhlotsheni bezwe nendawo phakathi, kanye nangaphakathi, incazelo esho ukuthi ukukhuluma ngohulumeni wendawo e-United States kukhuluma ngezimo ezingokomthetho nezingokombangazwe ezingaphezu kwamashumi amahlanu. Ukuqonda uhlelo olukhethekile lomthetho-sisekelo esifundeni ngasinye kubalulekile ekuqondeni igunya nokwehluleka kukahulumeni wendawo.

Ikusasa Lomthetho - sisekelo KaHulumeni Nemiphakathi Yendawo

Ukushintsha Komthetho - sisekelo Nokusetshenziswa Kwanamuhla

Imithetho-mithetho yoMbuso iyaqhubeka ishintsha ishintshe ngezinqubo zokulungisa nokuzilungisa. Njengoba imiphakathi ibhekana nezinselele ezintsha zokwenza isimo sezulu sibe yizimo zezobuchwepheshe, izakhiwo ze-"constitution" kumelwe zivumelane nokuxazulula izinkinga ezivelayo. Ezinye izifunda-mazwe zibuye zilungise imithetho yazo ukuze zibonise ukuthi izinto ziyashintsha futhi zibhekene nezimo, kanti ezinye zigcina amalungiselelo omthetho-sisekelo angeke asakwazi ukufeza izidingo zamanje.

Imizamo yokuguqula umthetho ivame ukugxila ekwandiseni igunya lendawo, ukuvikela amalungelo abantu ngabanye, noma ukusingatha izinqubo ezithile ezihilelekile. Lezi zinguquko zingathinta kakhulu imiphakathi yendawo ngokushintsha uhlelo olungokomthetho esebenzela kuyo. Izakhamuzi eziqonda umthetho-sisekelo wombuso futhi ezihlanganyela emizamweni yokuguqula zingasiza ekulolongeni isimo somthetho ngokomthetho esibusa imiphakathi yazo.

Impikiswano Evusayo Nokusabela Komthetho - sisekelo

Izinselele ezintsha zidinga ukusabela komthetho - sisekelo okungenzeka akuzange kucatshangelwe lapho kusungulwa imithetho - sisekelo yombuso yamanje.Izindaba ezinjengokwaziswa okuyimfihlo, ukushintsha kwesimo sezulu, izindlu ezibizayo, nokungalingani kwezomnotho kuphakamisa imibuzo yokuthi iziphi izivikelo zomthetho - sisekelo nemibuso kahulumeni okudingekile ukuze kuxazululwe izinkinga zanamuhla.

Imithetho-sisekelo yoMbuso inikeza izinqubo zokuxazulula lezizindaba eziqubukayo, kodwa imiphakathi kumelwe ihileleke ngokuzikhandla ezinqubweni zomthetho - sisekelo ukuze iqinisekise ukuthi izinto ezikhathazayo ziqondiswe kulokhu. Kungakhathaliseki ukuthi ngokulungiswa komthetho - sisekelo, ukuchazwa kokwahlulela, noma ukumiswa komthetho - sisekelo wombuso, ukuziphendukela kwemvelo kuyoqhubeka kuhlela imiphakathi yendawo ezizukulwaneni ezizayo.

Indima Yokuhlanganyela Ezakhamuzini

Ukuqonda imithetho-sisekelo kahulumeni kanye nethonya layo emiphakathini yendawo kubalulekile ukuze izakhamuzi zikwazi ukuthembisana. Izakhamuzi eziqonda isimiso somthetho - sisekelo esibusa imiphakathi yazo zihlonyiselwe kangcono ukuba zihlanganyele ekwenzeni izinqumo zendawo, zisekele izithakazelo zazo futhi zibeke izikhulu icala.

Izakhamuzi ezihlangene ezimisweni zomthetho-sisekelo − kungakhathaliseki ukuthi ngokuvota ngezinguquko zomthetho-sisekelo, ngokuhlanganyela emihlanganweni engokomthetho, noma ngokusekela inguquko yomthetho-sisekelo, − izizalo ziqinisekisa ukuthi imithetho-mthetho yesizwe ibonisa izindinganiso zomphakathi futhi ifeze izidingo zendawo. Izinqumo ezenziwa emiphakathini yethu zifeza indima ebalulekile ekuphileni kwezakhamuzi futhi zizenze zikwazi ukwakha umphakathi ofanelana nezidingo zazo, futhi ohulumeni bendawo bangase bangazazi kahle, kodwa ithonya labo ezinhlalweni nasezameni kwabo ligcizelela ukubaluleka kwazo ekuphileni kwethu.

Isiphetho

Imithetho - sisekelo yoMbuso ihlela kakhulu imiphakathi yendawo ngamalungiselelo ayo ngokuphathelene namalungelo, izakhiwo zikahulumeni, igunya lokulawula izimali, namandla okulawula.

Ubuhlobo phakathi komthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni nemiphakathi yendawo bunamandla futhi bunezici eziningi. Ohulumeni bendawo abazimele futhi abazimele, njengoba bekhona phakathi kwesimiso sombuso wonke somthetho-sisekelo nemithetho, njengoba nje namazwe aseMelika ngokwawo, ekhona phakathi kohlelo loMthetho-sisekelo we-United States. Lomthetho-sisekelo udala kokubili amathuba nezithiyo zokubusa kwendawo.

Ukuqonda indlela imithetho - sisekelo kahulumeni ethonya ngayo imiphakathi yendawo kunika izakhamuzi amandla okuhlanganyela ngokuphumelelayo ekubuseni, ekusekeleni izithakazelo zayo, nasekusebenzeni ezimisweni zomthetho - sisekelo ezisiza umphakathi. Njengoba imibuso iqhubeka iguqula izimiso zayo zomthetho - sisekelo, ubuhlobo phakathi komthetho - sisekelo kahulumeni wezwe nemiphakathi yendawo kuyohlala buyisici esibalulekile sombuso waseMelika nokubusa kwentando yeningi.

Kulabo abafuna ukufunda okwengeziwe ngomthetho-mthetho kahulumeni nohulumeni wendawo, imithombo itholakala ngezinhlangano ezinjenge- iNhlangano yesizwe yamadolobha, i- National Association of Coualies [, kanye nezinhlangano zikamasipala wezwe. Izinhlangano zokucwaninga ezisemthethweni zinikeza ukwaziswa okuwusizo ngomthetho-mthetho wezwe kanye nethonya lawo emiphakathini yendawo. Ngokuhlanganyela nalemithombo yengcebo nokuhlanganyela ekulawuleni kwendawo, izakhamuzi zingasiza ekuqinisekiseni ukuthi imithetho-mthetho-siseko iyaqhubeka ikhonza izidingo zemiphakathi yabo ngokuphumelelayo.