Isingeniso: Ukufinyelela kobufandala ngalé kweNkantolo Ephakeme yase-U.S.

UbuJudist, obabuyinkolelo-lwazi ebanzi, buye baba yithonya elilawulayo encamini yomthetho-sisekelo waseMelika.[1] Ithonya lomthetho-sisekelo waseMelika ligxile kakhulu ezinkantolo zikahulumeni. Nakuba ukunaka okukhulu komphakathi kugxila ekusebenziseni kweNkantolo ePhakamileyo ekucabangeni kophawu olubonakalayo njengezinqumo ezinjengo i-Diquality of Columbia v. Heller [2008], ithonya lobustism lingena jula kakhulu ezweni lomthetho wezwe. Izishayamthetho, iziphakamiso ezithatha isinyathelo sokuqondisa izikhali, futhi ziveza zonke iziphakamiso zezimiso zokuqala zomthetho lapho ziveza, futhi zihlola izimo zomthetho. Lesi sihloko sihlola indlela ukuchaza nokubekwa komthetho wezwelo lwezwe, ukuphikisana nokubekwa kwemithetho ye-osebukhompuluke, ukuhlanganisa nezinga ezibusayo ezibusayo ezibusayo ezibusayo isikhathi eside.

Ukuchaza Ukuqamba Kwakuqala Kokwahlulela: Izikhulu Nezimpi

Umthetho wokwahlulela awuyona indlela yokwahlukanisa. Ihlanganisa izindlela eziningana ezihlukene, zonke ezihlanganyela isibopho sokumisa incazelo yomthetho-sisekelo kwenye indawo ye-ankile engokomlando. Izimo ezimbili ezinethonya kakhulu yinjongo yokuqala ye-ism[ kanye [FLT] ne- yokuqala yencazelo yomphakathi yencazelo yokuqala.

Incazelo Yomphakathi Yokuqala

Inhloso engokokuqala ibuza ukuthi yini abakhi be-flames noma ama-ratifiers abahloselwe yona ngokulandelana lapho befaka noma bethatha ilungiselelo lomthetho-sisekelo. Lendlela ixhomeke kakhulu emibhalweni engokomlando enjengezimpikiswano zomhlangano, i-Federalist Papers, nezincwadi zangasese. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi ukuqonda inhloso eyodwa, ehlangeneyo ngokuvamile akunakwenzeka, ikakhulukazi ezintwini eziningi.

Umphakathi oqanjiwe osho incazelo yokuqala , osekelwa yizibalo ezinjengoMahluleli Antonin Scalia nesazi somthetho uRandy Barnett, kunalokho ubuza ukuthi ubani onengqondo ngesikhathi sokusetshenziswa kwe-ratting wayeyoqonda ukuthi umbhalo usho ukuthini. Lendlela igcizelela incazelo evamile yamagama futhi igwema ukunciswa ezinhloso ezifihliweyo. Namuhla, incazelo yakuqala yasobala iwuhlobo oluyinhloko lobustristism kokubili kuhulumeni nasesifundazweni.

Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zithatha ngokuqhubekayo incazelo yomphakathi yakuqala lapho zichaza imithetho-siseko yazo. Ngokwesibonelo, iLouisiana Supreme Court iye yathi umthetho-sisekelo wezwe "kumelwe uchazwe ngokwencazelo ecacile yamazwi awo njengoba eqondwa ngesikhathi sokutholwa. Lendlela inqabela kakhulu indlela abahluleli bombuso ababheka ngayo ukuhlelwa kwemithetho ezama ukwandisa noma ukulinganisela amalungelo.

Indima Yemithetho - sisekelo YoMbuso Ezweni LaseMelika Elizimele

Imithetho-mthetho kahulumeni isebenza njengemithetho-sisekelo eyisisekelo kumaMelika angaphezu kwezigidi ezingu- 330, ngokuvamile equkethe isivikelo samalungelo esinemininingwane eminingi kune-Constitution. Ngokungafani noMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S., oye walungiswa izikhathi ezingu-7 kuphela, imithetho-mthetho kahulumeni ilungiswa njalo-kancane-kancane-kancane-kancane-kancane-kancane-kancane-kancane (ngokusebenzisa izimemezelo zomthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho, izinyathelo zezakhamuzi, noma imihlangano yomthetho-mthetho-mthetho-siseko. Le dynamism yenza umthetho wezwe ube yisisekelo esivundile sempikiswano yokuqala.

Ithonya lobufandamentali likhulu kakhulu ngoba abahluleli bezwe ngokuvamile bajabulela ukuvumelana kakhulu kunabahluleli bamazwe ukuba bachaze imithetho-siseko yabo siqu ngokuzimele. INkantolo ePhakeme yase-U.S. iye yakholelwa ngokuphindaphindiwe ukuthi imibuso inganikeza isivikelo esikhulu samalungelo abantu ngaphansi komthetho-mthetho wabo siqu kune-Programmentalism idinga (bona Michigan v. Long, 463], U.S. 1032, 1983). Ngenxa yalokho, umahluleli wezwe esebenzisa indlela yokuqala yezobuchwepheshe yezomthetho angafinyelela isiphetho esihlukile ngesilinganiso sikahulumeni kunokulawula kwesahluleli esisebenzisa indlela efanayo elungiselelwe uhulumeni. Lokhu kwakha indawo ecebile yokuhlola ukucabanga kokuqala komphakathi.

Indlela Ukubeka Umqondo Wemvelo Okushintsha Ngayo Inqubo Yesichibiyelo SikaHulumeni

Imfundiso yokuqala ithinta zonke izigaba zomjikelezo womthetho-mthetho wombuso wokulungisa ukuphila: ukuhlanganisa, ukuvota, ukubukeza kokwahlulela, kanye nokuchaza okulandelayo.

Ukuthatha Indiva Isiyalo Sokuqala

Abameli nabaxhasi abathatha isinyathelo kuqala abalindele ukubukezwa kokwahlulela kokuqala kumelwe balungise ngokunembe. Ulimi olupholile lumema izinkantolo ukuba zisebenzise incazelo yomphakathi yasekuqaleni, engase iphambuke emigomweni yenqubo yomthumeli. Ngokwesibonelo, uma isilinganiso sifuna ukumisa ilungelo elisha , sathi, "ekufaneleni endaweni ehlanzekile"" [1] Izinkantolo zakudala zihlola ukuthi lawo mazwi asho ukuthini emphakathini ngesikhathi sokutholwa, hhayi lokho abasekeli bethemba ukuthi kusho khona.

Ukubukeza Kokwahlulela Ngaphansi Kwezigebengu Ezilandela Umlando Wangaphambili

Lapho izinkantolo zikahulumeni zihlola ukusebenza kokulungisa, ukuguqulwa kobukhoma kunikeza uhlelo lokunquma ukuthi izinguquko ziyaphikisana yini nombhalo womthetho-sisekelo okhona. Imithetho-mthetho eminingi yombuso iqukethe "inguquko" izigaba ezilinganisela izihloko okungase kuthathwe kuzo izinguquko. Ngokwesibonelo, izinguquko ezilulaza uhlobo "lombuso" oluqinisekiswe yi-U.S. uMthetho-sisekelo ungadidelwa. Abahluleli bokuqala bayobuza ukuthi incazelo yenguquko, njengoba iqondwa ekulungiseni, iphula lawo malungiselelo amisiwe.

Ubufandamentali buthinta futhi indlela izinkantolo ezibheka ngayo izinselele ze-procedectal. Eminye imithetho-mthetho yombuso ifuna ukuba izinguquko zigcinwe entweni eyodwa. Abahluleli bakuqala bayobheka encazelweni engokomlando "isihloko esisodwa" ngesikhathi umthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni we-ogrand wemukelwa, kunokuba usebenzise izindinganiso zomthetho wanamuhla wokulawula. Lokhu kungaphumela ekubekeni indiva kakhulu noma ngaphansi kwe-pad comment, kuye ngokwendlela yokuqala yokuqonda kukahulumeni.

Ukuhlola Izimo: Ukukholelwa Endulo Kubonakala Ngaphesheya Kwe - United States

Ukuze sibonise ithonya elisebenzayo lobu qobo ekulungiseni isilinganiso sombuso, sihlola izibonelo ezintathu eziphawulekayo ezivela emagunyeni ahlukene.

ECalifornia: Ukuhlobanisa Umshado Nencazelo Yasekuqaleni

Ngo-2008, abavoti baseCalifornia badlulisa iProgration 8, isinyathelo sokulungisa umthetho-sisekelo wezwe sokuchaza umshado njengowodwa phakathi kwendoda nowesifazane. Lapho ukulungisa kwabekelwa inselele . uPerry v. Schwarzeger (ngomuva ]]] i-Hallolsworworth v. Perry]]), zombili izinhlangothi zancintiswa izimpikiswano zokuqala. Incazelo engokomlando ye "Umshado" esikhathini sokuqala sika-1849 somthetho womthetho womthetho yayivumelana kuphela. Abaphikisi baphikisa ukuthi ukuvikelwa komthetho okuhlangeneyo kwakunencazelo ebanzi esekelwe ekwamukeleni kwesimiso sombuso. Inkantolo engu-US yahlasela inkantolo engu-US. Ngokuyinhloko, isikhulumi ngomthetho waveza ukuphakama kwenkulumo ebanzi phakathi kweze ngokomthetho. kodwa umthetho ovamile, kodwa umbiko owenzile.

Izinkantolo zase California zisanda kusebenzisa ukuguqulwa komthetho ezicabeni ezihilela izigwegwe zomthetho. Abantu v. Buza (2017), iNkantolo Ephakeme yaseCalifornia yenqaba ukusebenzisa ukuhlolwa okuqinile kokuqala ekuhlolweni kwe-Program 9 (Umthetho ka-Marsy), kodwa ukucabanga kokuqala kwavela emibonweni ephikiswayo ephikisanayo ephikisa ukuvumelana kokuqondana kwenqubo yokuqala.

IFlorida: Ilungelo likaHunt nenhlanzi

Ngo-2014, abavoti baseFlorida bamukela iSichibiyelo 1, esafaka ilungelo lomthetho-sisekelo lokuzingela nezinhlanzi. Lapho kamuva kuvela ukubekwa icala ngokuthi lokhu kulungisa kwalilinganisela igunya likahulumeni lokulawula izilwane zasendle, iNkantolo Ephakeme yaseFlorida yasebenzisa izimiso eziyisisekelo. Lenkantolo yahlola i-metation, i-collet, i-collet, nezikhangiso ezisuka emkhankasweni wokunquma ukuthi umvoti onengqondo uqondeni lokulungiswa kokukhokha ngo-2014. Inkantolo yaphetha ngokuthi ilungelo lokuzingela izinhlanzi aliyibambisi iziqondiso ezinengqondo eziqondiswe ekulondolozweni. Lokhu kubonisa indlela ukuvumelana kombhalo wokuqala okunganciphisa ngayo izinga lokuqonda okusanda kwenziwa ngokulingwayo ngokulisebenzisa ukuqonda kwalo ngokomlando kunokuba ivumele ukuchazwa komthetho omkhulu.

Louisiana: Isinqumo Sebhodi Yesikole SaseParish

Ku iTangipahoa Parcod Board v. State [20], iLouisiana Supreme Court yacabangela ukuthi ukuhlelwa komthetho-mthetho-siseko kwaleyo mithetho-siseko kwakha uhlelo olusha lwemfundo yezemfundo kuphambene nencazelo yokuqala yemithetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho. Inkantolo yasebenzisa incazelo yasekuqaleni yomphakathi, ukuhlola izichazamazwi nemibhalo ye-fishthilithili ukusuka emhlanganweni we-1940. Yagcina iphethe ukuthi ukuqedwa kwemithetho-mfunda-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho akungqubaniselanga ukuphazamisa incazelo yokuqala ye-"incazelo yokuqala yemithetho ebekwayo ngonyaka enqabeni, hhayi ukuvinjelwa kwesibopho eside. Lesinqumo savumela ukumiswa kwemithetho esekelwe emthethweni wemithetho engokomthetho evumelana nesimiso sesikhathi esizayo sokuqondanisa nemibandela.

Izimpikiswano Nokugxekwa Kobuqaba Ezingeni LoMbuso

Naphezu kwethonya layo elikhulayo, ukukholelwa ekudalweni kwamasiko esonto kugxekwa kakhulu lapho kusetshenziswa ekulungiseni umthetho - sisekelo.

Umthetho Wentando Yeningi Nesikele Ziyakukhohlisa

Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi ubuKhomanisi bokuqala bululaza intando yentando yeningi yabavoti ngokuqinisa incazelo yomthetho-sisekelo ngomzuzu othile odlule. Uma ukuguqulwa kudluliswa ukuphumelela okukhulu kwabavoti ukusingatha izinkinga zanamuhla − njengobandlululo lwe-algorithm noma ukuwohloka kwendawo ezungezile⁠) umahluleli wokuqala ophikelelayo ekuncipheni kwenjongo ye-antementation ye-18 noma ye-19 umbango womthetho-sisekelo owenziwe ngempumelelo ukuze ahluleke ukuguqula umbono womphakathi. Umahluleli uWilliam J. Brennan Jr. Ngokudumile ubizwa ngokuthi "arrocancesm," futhi ukuthi isebenza ngamandla esimweni, lapho imithetho yemithetho iklalwe ukuguqula umbono womphakathi.

Ngaphezu kwalokho, ubufandamentali bungaphikisana nesandulela senkantolo. Izinkantolo eziningi ziveza amashumi eminyaka emithetho echaza amacala emithetho-siseko yazo. Uma inkantolo ngokungazelele iphendukela ekuhleleni izindlela zobuqamama, ingazinzisa amathemba aqinile empahleni, esivumelwaneni somthetho wobugebengu. Imfundiso yokubuka idecisi inikeza ukuzinza okuthile, kodwa abahluleli bokuqala baphikisa ngokuthi izenzakalo ezingalungile kumelwe zithathelwe imingcele.

Izinkinga Ekuqondeni Incazelo Yasekuqaleni

Ngisho nakuyinkolelo-mbono yokuqala, kunokuphikisana okukhulu mayelana nendlela yokuthola incazelo yokuqala. Umlando wemithetho-sisekelo kahulumeni uvame ukungaqinisekwa kahle uma uqhathaniswa nemibhalo kahulumeni. Imihlangano eminingi yomthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni yaqhutshwa ngekhulu le-19, futhi izimpikiswano zawo azizange zishicilelwe noma zibhujiswe. Lokhu kuphikisana okusobala okungamandla ezinkantolo ukuze kuncike kumagama akhona, amaphephandaba, kanye nezindatshana zomthetho ezivamile, ezingathathwa ngokusekela izincazelo eziphikisanayo.

Ukuzivumelanisa Namalungelo Ne - Contemporary

Mhlawumbe i-critique ethanda kakhulu ikhathalela ikhono lobu qobo lokukwazi ukuhlalisa amalungelo amasha. Uma ukulungisa kudala ngokucacile ilungelo lenoveli − njengelungelo lokuzifihla kumthetho-mthetho wezwe − abaqali kumele banqume ukuthi lelo lungelo "incazelo yokuqala" lilinganiselwe kulokho okwabonwayo ngo 1972 noma ukuthi ulimi olubanzi lombhalo luhloselwe ukuguqula. Abanye olwenziwa, njengoJaji uAmy Coney Barrett, bayavuma ukuthi amalungiselelo athile, njengalawo awenqabela "isijeziso nesijeziso esingavamile," akha-ekhono lokukholelwa ekuguqukelelweni ngenxa yokuthi injongo yabo yokuqala ibhekisela ezindinganisweni ezihambisana nezindinganiso zokuhlonipheka. Kodwa le mpikiswano yangaphakathi ihloselwe ukuguqula [[FLD:] izindlela zokuqala [FLD], ihlala ingenakuphendulwa kanye nemithetho ehlukene kanye nemithetho ephakathi] lapho i-FTrectalth-Fothment isebenzisa amalungelo.[2]

Ikusasa LobuProthestani Obusaqala Ezingeni LioMbuso

Izimo eziningana zisikisela ukuthi ithonya lobu qobo ekulungiseni umthetho-sisekelo wezwe liyokhula kuphela eminyakeni ezayo. Okokuqala, iNhlangano ye-Federalist nezinhlangano ezifanayo ziqeqeshe abahluleli bombuso kanye nonobhala bezomthetho benqubo yokuqala. Izinhlelo zemfundo yokwahlulela manje zihlanganisa izikhawu zencazelo yomphakathi yakuqala, futhi izinkantolo eziningi eziphezulu zikahulumeni ziye zanyathelisa [ i-opions ezikhomba ulwazi lwakuqala.

Okwesibili, ukunyuka kwezinhlangano "zomthetho-sisekelo othandwayo" − njengemizamo yombuso yokubiza i-Athigin V) ngokuvamile kuhlanganisa inkulumo yokuqala ekhuluma ngokubuyisela amandla ezifundazwe nasebantwini. Lezinhlangano ziphikisa ngokuthi izinguquko zikahulumeni kufanele zifakwe ukuze kubuyiselwe ukuqonda komthetho sisekelo wokuqala kuhulumeni.

Okwesithathu, izishaya-mthetho zikahulumeni zifunwa kakhulu yimithetho-mthetho yazo siqu ukuba zinikeze "ukuhlelwa kwenjongo" noma "ukuthola iqiniso" lapho kuhlelwa izinguquko. Le mibhalo ivame ukuhlanganisa ukuhlaziywa okungokomlando okuhloselwe ukuqondisa incazelo yesikhathi esizayo ye-Orist. Ngokwesibonelo, i-Legislation yeTexas iye yahlanganisa amanothi amaningi angokomlando ukuze ahlongozwe ngokuphathelene namalungelo empahla nenkululeko yezokwelapha, inethemba lokuvala incazelo eqondile.

Nokho, i-tradie ayiphikisani. Amaqembu aqhubekekayo aqala ukusungula izindlela zokuchaza eziphikisanayo − njenge "umthetho sisekelo" noma "umthetho sisekelo wemithetho""" ukuthi aphikisana kangcono nezidingo zanamuhla ngaphandle kokuphula ngokuphelele emibhalweni nasemlandweni. Izinkantolo zoMbuso ezisezifundazweni eziluhlaza okwesibhakabhaka, njenge New York neWashington, ziye zamelana nokusebenzisa i-stristric eqinile futhi esikhundleni sawo kuncike ezindinganisweni ezisekelwe ezisekelwe emthethweni noma ekubukezeni okuvumelanayo lapho zihlola izinqumo.

Isiphetho: Ubufandamentali Njengama - Consistet Namasimu Ahlolwayo

UbuKhomanisi bokwahlulela buye babonakala buyisimiso esinamandla nesiqinile sokulungisa umthetho-sisekelo ophezulu. Ukugcizelela kwayo incazelo engokomlando kuphoqelela iziyalezo kubaqondisi bezomthetho, ukuhlola ukwahlulela, futhi kunikeza ulimi olufanayo empikiswaneni engokomthetho. Kodwa akunazo izinkolo eziqinile noma ezamukelwa emhlabeni wonke. Izinkantolo ziyaqhubeka zilwa nezinkinga ezisebenzayo zokuthola incazelo yokuqala, ukushukuma kombhalo nentando yeningi, kanye nesidingo sokuvumelanisa umthetho wemithetho-mthetho-siseko nokushintsha izimo ngaphandle kokulahla umthetho.

Ekugcineni, ithonya lobuProtomstry emthethweni womthetho-mthetho-sisekelo wezwe libonisa ukushukuma okukhulu ekubusweni kwaseMelika: isifiso sikahulumeni ozinzile, olinganiselwe nesidingo somthetho ovumelanayo, osabelayo. Njengoba imithetho-mthetho kahulumeni ishintshwa ukusingatha yonke into kusukela emalungelweni okuvota kuya kukuhlakanipha kokuzenzela, uhlelo lokuqala luyohlala lukhona phakathi---"ne-"ne-"10" ne-slight iphikiswane kakhulu ekulinganiseni lezindinganiso eziphikisanayo. Ukuqonda lefilosofi ibalulekile kunoma ubani ofuna ukuthatha igalelo lomsebenzi oqhubekayo womthetho-mthetho wezwe.