IZisekelo Ezingokomlando Zobukhosi Besizwe NoMthetho - sisekelo WaseU.S.

UMthetho-sisekelo wase-United States, owabuthelwa ngo-1787, wakha uhlelo lukahulumeni omusha kahulumeni, kodwa washiya isikhundla sezizwe zoMdabu waseMelika singaziwa kakhulu. Ngesikhathi soMhlangano woMthetho-sisekelo, abakhi babheka izizwe zoMdabu njengezizwe ezihlukene, ezizimele irepublic entsha eyayizoqhuba nazo izivumelwano zezivumelwano. Lokhu kuqonda kokuqala kuboniswa embhalweni womthetho-sisekelo, okhuluma ngo- “amaNdiya” kathathu , wonke ngokomongowamandla kahulumeni kunamalungelo esizwe.

I-Commerce Claus (Ingxenye I, i-I, u-Claus 3) inikeza uMkhandlu amandla “okulawula ezentengiselwano nezizwe zakwamanye amazwe, naphakathi kwezizwe eziningana, kanye nezizwe zamaNdiya.” Ngokubeka izizwe zamaNdiya emgwebeni ofanayo njengamazwe angaphandle namazwe, abafaki bemiya bavuma ngokuphelele isikhundla sabo esihlukile sezombangazwe. Nokho, lo mqubulo wanikeza futhi uhulumeni wezwe igunya elingenalutho phezu kobudlelwane bezomnotho nezizwe, amandla kamuva ayezosetshenziswa ukuthethelela izimiso zombuso.

Isivumelwano sobuTreaty Claus (Ingxenye II, i-Claus II] ivumela uMongameli ukuba enze izivumelwano ‘ neseluleko nemvume yeSigele.]” Kusukela ngo 1778 kuya ku-1871, i-United States yangena ezivumelwaneni ezingaphezu kuka-370 namazwe Odabu. Lezi zivumelwano zaqashelwa njengomthetho ophakeme wezwe ngaphansi kwe- [FLT]] u-Slabel esbecree[[ [iqenti]] (i-Artle VI, Claus 2), okuthiwazisa ukuthi zonke izivumelwano zenziwa ngaphansi kwegunya le-United States. Naphezu kwalentekomthetho womthetho-mthetho, uhulumeni kahulumeni wezwe kaningi, uholele izivumelwano ezithatha umlando omude wombuso wesizwe.

Ukuthula koMthetho-sisekelo ngobukhosi obuzuzwe ngefa bezizwe zaboMdabu kwabangela indawo eyahlanganiswa ekugcineni iNkantolo Ephakeme. Ochungechungeni lwamacala okuqala, uMahluleli omkhulu uJohn Marshall washo imfundiso eyayizochaza umthetho wamaNdiya wombuso amakhulu eminyaka. [FLT][1] Johnson v. McIntosh[FLT][FLT] [1823], iNkanto engokomthetho yayithi izakhamuzi zomphakathi zazingenakuthenga izwe ngokuqondile ezizweni zaboMdabudabu ngenxa yokuthi ukutholakala kwanikeza i-United States isiqu sezwe esiyinhloko sezwe. Lokhu “kuveza i-“dictrine" ngokuphumelela kwalinganisela amalungelo esizwe ngesikhathi iqaphela ukuthi izizwe zazihlala kunelungelo lokuhlala kulo.

Amalungiselelo Ayinhloko Omthetho - sisekelo Nethonya Lawo Ebukhosini Bomdabu

UClaus Onedumela Elibi Nokukhululwa

I-Supremacy Claus imisa ukuthi umthetho kahulumeni uthatha indawo yokuqala kunomthetho wezwe. Kuwo wonke amaqembu amaNational, lesi simiso siye saba yisihlangu nenkemba. Kwesinye isandla, sivikela izizwe ekungeneni kohulumeni − amazwe ngokuvamile angakwazi ukulawula izindaba zesizwe ezikhona. Ngakolunye uhlangothi, lapho iSishaya-mthetho udlulisela imithetho ephikisana nombuso wesizwe, umthetho kahulumeni uyaqhubeka, ululaza ubalaza ubukhosi besizwe. Ngokwesibonelo, iMajogn Crimes Act (1885) inikeza izinkantolo zezwekazi eziphethe izigebetho eziyisikhombisa zezehlakalo, ngisho nalapho kokubili ukuvukelana nezisulu kwakungamalungu esizwe. INkanto ephakeme yayisekela lesinyathelo [FLD:] [FLD:] .[FLD] .[FFOLD][3] [18] [18] [18] [18], uhulumeni ophethe uhulumeni wombuso wabusa uhulumeni (186, uhulumeni ophethe uhulumeni ophethe uhulumeni owe-G.])

Amandla Ezentengiselwano KaClaus Nama - congress Ayinhloko

I-Indiya Commerce Claus ichazwe ukunikeza uKhongolo-mbuso amandla ezindabeni zoMdabu] .a amandla abanzi kakhulu kangangokuba angalinganiselwe ngezivumelwano ezivamile zomthetho-mthetho. [FLT][FLT]] [Lone Wolve v. [[FLT] [[FLT]] [[03]] [1903], iNkantolo yanquma ukuthi i-Congress Congress arreat inged i-brogated, ngisho naleyo ndawo yesizwe ethembisayo ehlala njalo ephethe. Lesi sinqumo sachitha ubukhosi besizwe nomnyango wezwe phakathi nenkathi yokuhlukaniswa kwezindawo, lapho izigidi zezwe zathunyelwa kwezindawo ezingekho ndawo. Namuhla, i-pritan, i-production, iyaqhubeka nemfundiso yezizwe eziphikisana nezizwe ezibusayo.

Isivumelwano sikaClaus nokuphela Kwesivumelwano

Isivumelwano sikaClausle sanika amazwe oMdabu ithuluzi elinamandla lokuxoxa ne-United States njengelingana nayo. Nokho, ngo- 1871, uMkhandlu wahlanganisa umgibeli wesivumelwano esaphela ukwenza isivumelwano nezizwe zamaNdiya. Kusukela kuleloqophelo phambili, izivumelwano nezizwe zenziwa ngemithetho noma ngemithetho yezikhulu, okwakungashintshwa amaKhongolo alandela. Lokhu kwanciphisa isikhundla esingokomthetho samazwe esizwe futhi kwasusa ubuhlobo phakathi kobunye besivumelwano sombuso sokubusa. Naphezu kokuphela kwezivumelwano zokwenza isivumelwano, izivumelwano ezikhona zisekhona zisekhona zibopha isibopho esingokomthetho, futhi izinkantolo ziyaqhubeka zichaza izichaza ngaphansi kwezimiso zomthetho.

Uphawu lweNkantolo Ephakeme: “IMarchy Trigon” Nangemva Kwayo

Johnson v. McITsh (180)

Njengoba kuphawuliwe, lelicala lasungula imfundiso. Nakuba amalungelo empahla ezwe loMdabu ayelinganiselwe, laqaphela futhi ukuthi izizwe zazinesiqu “samaNdiya” esasingaqedwa kuphela nguhulumeni kahulumeni (hhayi ababusi noma abantu ngabanye. Lesi simiso kamuva sakha isisekelo sokwethenjelwa kukahulumeni.

[[UMTL:0] Isizwe seCheroke j. Georgia[ (1831)]

ISizwe saseCherokee safuna umyalo omelene nemithetho yeGeorgia eyaqeda uhulumeni wesizwe futhi yathatha amazwe esizwe. UMahluleli omkhulu uMarshall wanquma ukuthi i-Cherokee Nation yayingesona “isizwe sangaphandle” ngaphansi kweSiphakamiso III soMthetho-sisekelo, kodwa kunalokho“ isizwe esincikene nesigaba.” Leligama elididayo lavuma ubukhosi besizwe lapho lisenza ukuba butholwe uhulumeni. INkantolo yabuye yathi iCherokee sizwe ngeke ikhohlisele umbuso eNkantolo Ephakeme (a ephakeme) eshaya inhlekelele eshiye isizwe singenawo uhulumeni owelaphayo.

[[UMTH:0] Worcester v. Georgia[ (132)

Esinqumweni esiphawulekayo, iNkantolo Ephakeme yalahla imithetho yeGeorgia njengengangqubuzani nemithetho yobuzwe. Marshall wabhala ukuthi “isizwe saseCherokee siwumphakathi ohlukile, sihlala endaweni yaso, lapho imithetho yaseGeorgia ingenawo amandla.” UMongameli uAndrew Jackson wenqaba ngokudume kakhulu ukuphoqelela ukubusa, okuholela eMbhoshongweni Wezinyembezi. Noma kunjalo, [FLT] uWarcster uhlala usese secala eliyisisekelo sobukhosi besizwe, emisa okuthi awanalo igunya lokwenza uma ikhefuthe uma imvume ingekho.

United States v. Kagama (1886)

Lelicala lasekela iMajor Crimes Act, linikeza igunya lezinkantolo zikahulumeni emacalani athile. Inkantolo yathethelela lokhu kungenela ngokufaka inkolelo-mbono yegumbi elisesiteji(-"izizwe zincike ku-marth Crimes Act futhi zidinga isivikelo sikahulumeni. Isinqumo sandisa kakhulu amandla kahulumeni ngokulahlekelwa kwezimiso zokwahlulela zesizwe.

[[I-FLT:0] McClanahan v. Arizona State Taxis Commission (1973])

Kulendaba yanamuhla, iNkantolo Ephakeme yaqinisekisa ukuthi amazwe awakwazi ukukhokhisa amaMelika Omdabu ahlala ezinqikazweni ngaphandle kokuba uMkhandlu uyigunyaze ngokucacile.

ISichibiyelo Se - 14 Nezakhamuzi Zomdabu ZaseMelika

ISichibiyelo se-14, esagunyazwa ngo-1868, sinikeza “bonke abantu abazalwa noma abadaliweyo e-United States, futhi bangaphansi kwegunya laso.” Inkulumo ethi“ bathobela i-countment .” yachazwa iNkantolo Ephakeme [FLT]] [[FLT]] [[FLT] [1884] [ukungabenziwa amaMelika]. INkantolo yakholelwa ukuthi abantu boMdabu babengamele ukulawulwa yizwe lase-United States" ngenxa yokuthi ukwethembeka kwabo okuyinhloko kwakuyisizwe sabo. Yathatha iSiphaka saseIndiyanbo sase-1924[FFFF:5] [185] [i] [i-U-US] ukuze bakhiphe bonke abantu abadabunini. Nokho, iNka i-Melika-Melika iyasebenza eMelika bonke ama-Edwa ukuba abe-Edwa ukuba bamukele i-Externawords.

Ithonya lenguquko ekubuseni kwesizwe liyinkimbinkimbi. Ukuba isakhamuzi akuzange kuqede ubuhlobo bobusha be-gada; izizwe zahlala zingaphansi kokuqondisa kukahulumeni. Amanye amalungu esizwe aphikisa ngokuthi isiqinisekiso seSichibiyelo se 14 se- “isivikelo sokulingana” singqubuzana namalungelo obuzwe okunquma ukuba yilungu noma ukusebenzisa imithetho yesizwe ngokwehlukile. Izinkantolo ngokuvamile ziye zathi ohulumeni besizwe, njengababusi abahlukene, ababoshelwanga iSichibiyelo se-14 ngendlela efanayo namazwe noma uhulumeni wombuso.

Umsebenzi Wanamuhla Ongokomthetho: Umthwalo Wemfanelo We - Federal Certification Nokuzimisela

Imfundiso Yokwethembana

UMthetho-sisekelo awubukhi ngokomthetho ubuhlobo becala, kodwa iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yaveza umsebenzi kahulumeni wokuvikela izizwe zomdabu nemithombo yazo esekelwe ezivumelwaneni zesivumelwano kanye nasolimi lwe-ladishi ku- Kathama nezinye izenzakalo. i-Indiyan Self-Dminitian ne Education Act ka 1975[[FLT:] [[FLT]] [ISDEA]) inqubo yokulawula izinhlelo zikahulumeni, kodwa umthwalo wemfanelo uyaqhubeka nokukhokha. Izimo ezifana ne .[FLT] .[5] .6]

Amandla Ombuso Nomthetho Wamalungelo Abantu WaseNdiya

Ngo-1968, uKhongolo-khampani lwadlulisa i-Indian Civil Rights Act (ICRA), eyayisebenzisa ingxenye enkulu yeSiphakamiso samalungelo kohulumeni besizwe. Lokhu kwakuyinguquko yomthetho ngokomthetho .(IConrer) yasebenzisa amandla ayo okuvimbela ubukhosi besizwe egameni lokuvikela amalungelo abantu. Nokho, i-ICRA ayihlanganisi zonke izivikelo zomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo (umz., akukho simemezelo, akukho lungelo lokululeka ezinkantolo zesizwe ngezindleko zikahulumeni). INkantolo Ephakeme ilokhu ibheka ukuthi i-habeas corpus ngaphansi kwe-ICRAs ilinganiselwe, ilondoloza igunya lenkantolo yesizwe.

Izinselele Zomthetho - sisekelo Wesikhathi Esidlule

Amalungelo Ezwe Nemfundiso Yokutholwa

Imfundiso yokuthola, esekelwe emfundisweni engokomthetho yekhulu lesihlanu lenkulungwane yeYurophu, iye yalahlwa ezinye izindikimba zomhlaba wonke kodwa ihlala ibekwe emthethweni-mthethweni wase-U.S. ngo- Johnson v. McInish. Amazwe omdabu ayaqhubeka elwela ukuqaphela iziqu zawo zokuqala, ngokuvamile ngokusho ukuthi imithetho yezwe noma izenzo zezikhulu zesivumelwano ziphula amalungelo esivumelwano. [[FLT] [FLT][FLT]] [FLT]] [FT] [3] McGitt.[[FLT:[5] [FLT] [FLT] [5] [5] [20] [indlela] ebanzi yemithetho engokomthetho elawulayomthetho wesivumelwano. [indlela ephakeme yesizwe], njengoba idinga i-Nationalspouni encisovissss (yes.S]) entervicessss, ebumbelwe yiziseke kakhulu yezizwe, ifuna izinjongo yezizwe ze

Izingxabano Ezibangelwa Impikiswano

Icala negunya lomphakathi ezinhlangothini zezindawo yi-demon ye-guvernel kazwelonke, umbuso, kanye negunya lesizwe. Ubudlova Obumelene Nabesifazane bango-2013 baqashelwa ubuphathi besizwe obulinganiselwe obungalawuleki ebugebengwini obungebona obungokweziNuni. Ukunqanyulwa kwemithetho i-Oliphant v. i-Suquamish Indish Indish [FULTY] [1788], eyayithi izizwe azikwazi ukumangalela abangezona izigebengu-Nansiti. Ukubusa kwesizwe okungekhona okusemthethweni kuhlala kuphikisana ngokushisa, ngokuphikisa okuthile ukuthi kuhlehlela kwemvume yokuhlela “igebengu yesizwe.

Imithombo Yemvelo Nokuvuselelwa Kwemvelo

Ukwabiwa komthetho-mthetho wemibuso nakho kubumbene ukulawulwa kwezizwe ngemithombo yemvelo. I-EPA’s Ukwelapha njengezwe uhlelo luvumela izizwe eziqashelwe ngokwemibuso ukuba zimise izinga lamanzi ngaphansi kwe-Deopage Water Act, kodwa lezindinganiso zingaphikisana nezithakazelo zesizwe nezombuso. [FLT][FLT] [[3]] [[FLT]].[FLT][FLT][4][20:5] [20], iNkantolo Ephakeme ibeke imingcele ye-EPA imingcele yekhono yokubeka igunya lesizwe phezu kwezizwe ezinhlanganweni zokuzingela, ukudoba, ukuhlanganisa nelungelo lokubutha, ukuhlanganisa nesivumelwano sokubusa kwesivumelwano esihlangene nemithetho ye-RGOT] [F] [F]

Impikiswano Eyinhloko Ebukhulwini Bomdabu Namuhla

  • Ukuvikelwa kwamalungelo esizwe somhlaba: ukusongela okuqhubekayo kwemisebenzi yezesisekelo, ukukhipha izimpahla, kanye nokungenela kombuso. INkantolo Ephakeme McGirt[ inemibuzo evunyiwe ngemingcele yemingcele.
  • Ukuthola ubukhosi besizwe emthethweni kahulumeni: I-Bureau yezindaba zamaNdiya [ inikeza umsebenzi oyinkimbinkimbi wemithetho, futhi iziKhomishane zivame ukuvala isivumelwano sesizwe ngomthetho onjengo 2020 [[FLT:] Great American Outrootes Act[.
  • Ukulahlwa kwecala lobugebengu namacala omphakathi: Izinkantolo zesizwe azinagunya kubamangalelwa abangamele iMidanti ezimweni eziningi, zidala izikhala zomthetho zokuphoqelela. VAWA 20222] ukuphinde kugunyazwe ngesizwe phezu kwemithetho engekho-kweminye imibango, kodwa zibhekene nezinselele zomthetho-sisekelo.
  • Ukulawula imithombo yemvelo nezindaba zendawo ezungezile:[ Izizwe zifuna ubukho noma ukubusa okuyinhloko kwemithombo emasimini okhokho bazo, ngokuvamile zithembele emalungelweni esivumelwano njengesivikelo somthetho-sisekelo.
  • [[FLT: 0] Ikhono lezizwe lokuphoqa intela emabhizinisini angewona ama-National ezinkoni lilinganiselwe yimithetho yeNkantolo Ephakeme enjenge Atkinson Trading Co. v. Shirley (1997). Ukugembula kwesizwe, okugunyazwe ngaphansi komthetho [[FLT: 4.]

Ukubheka Phambili: Inguquko Yomthetho - sisekelo Nemfundo Yesizwe

Amazwe amaningi oMdabu nezinhlangano zobushiqela ziphikisa ngokuthi uMthetho-sisekelo ngokwawo kumelwe uphinde uhlolwe ukuze uvikele ngokugcwele ubukhosi besizwe. Iziphakamiso zihlanganisa ukumiswa komthetho-sisekelo ukuze kucaciswe ukuthi izivumelwano azinakukhishwa ngaphandle kwemvume yesizwe, noma umthetho kahulumeni omisa umthwalo wemfanelo wokuphathiswa njengesibopho somthetho-mthetho. i-National Congress of Indian [ i-irbaccom Congress Congressssssssss ezims kulezindaba, futhi iyaqhubeka ivivinya imingcele yamandla kahulumeni.

Kubafundisi nabafundi, ukuqonda izisekelo zomthetho-sisekelo zamalungelo amaNdiya oMdabu ase-Melika kubalulekile. UMthetho-sisekelo unikeza kokubili uhlelo lobukhulu bukahulumeni kanye nezimpikiswano ezingokomthetho zobukhosi besizwe. Umzabalazo oqhubekayo wokulinganisela lezizimiso eziphikisanayo, amalungelo ombuso, namalungelo ombuso, kanye nokuzinqumela kwesizwe ngokwaso esisenhloni somthetho wamaNdiya wanamuhla. Ngokufunda ukuziphendukela kwemvelo kusukela kuMarshall Trilogy kuya ku [FLT: 0] McGritt, umuntu uzuza ukuqonda indlela uMthetho-sisekelo oqhubeka ngayo ubumbanisa ngayo ukuphila kwamaMelika amaNdiya namazwe awo anamuhla.

Imithombo eyinhloko yokuhlola ihlanganisa uKhongolo lwesizwe lwamaNdiya aseMelika, [ ] u-Bureaual of Indian Affaian Affairs [[FLT]][FLT] [[12], futhi uhlazingisise ku-[FLT][FLT][FLT:][FL:9]] [[FLT]] i-ULT] iSikhu seM,[[FLT] [indlela] ebanzi yemiyamandla omthetho][FLT] [inikeza izincazelo ezingokomthetho phakathi kwezincwadi ezisenezelwe phakathi kwezizwe ezihlangene kanye nezithiwenani eliqhubekelayo.]