Ithonya Lomthetho - sisekelo Ngamalungelo Ababoshi Nawabo

Umthetho-sisekelo we-United States ungumthetho ophakeme wezwe, kodwa ukusebenza kwawo kubantu ababoshiwe kuye kwaba umthombo wesimo esingokomthetho nesomphakathi kusukela ekusungulweni. Nakuba ngokungangabazeki uhulumeni uphethe amandla okubamba nokujezisa, uMthetho-sisekelo ubeka imingcele kulelogunya, uqinisekisa ukuthi ngisho nalezo eziphucwe inkululeko ehlala iqinile. Ukulinganisela phakathi kokuphepha komphakathi, isijeziso, nesithunzi kuvivinywa njalo ezinkantolo nasezikhungweni zokulungisa. Lesi sihloko sihlola indlela iziboshwa zezeluleko ze-8 neZiphendulo ze-Gadeyintshiwe ze-8, ngokukakhulu iziboshwa ezivikelayo kanye nezingamele, ukubukeza izinqulu eziyinhloko zeNkanto eziye zalolo khuseleko, futhi sixoxa ngezinselele eziqhubekayo nemizamo yokulungisa inguquko enkathi yanamuhla.

Ngokuvumelana ne-Crucio, inkulumo ethi “ababoshi nababoshiwe” ihlanganisa izigaba eziningi: iziboshwa eziboshiwe zidonsa izigwebo, izibopho ezivalelwe emajele, abantu ngabanye abavalelwe ejele, labo abasezikhungweni zokuboshelwa emakhaya, nalabo abasezikhungweni zomphakathi. UMthetho-sisekelo awusebenzi ngendlela efanayo kuzo zonke izigaba; ngokwesibonelo, iziboshwa eziboshiwe zingajeziswa, kuyilapho ababoshiwe bengeke bajeziswa nhlobo. Noma kunjalo, bonke bahlanganyela isivikelo esithile esiyisisekelo ekuhlushweni kukahulumeni. Ukuqonda lezi sivikelo kudingekile ezingokomthetho, abahleli bemithetho, nezakhamuzi ezikhathalela ubulungisa nesithunzi sabantu esimisweni.

Isivikelo Somthetho - sisekelo Sababoshwa Nabasejele

ISichibiyelo Sesishiyagalombili: Unya Nesijeziso Esingavamile

ISichibiyelo se-Eighth sinikeza ukuthi “ibheyili yemithetho ayiyikudingeka, noma ihlawuliswa ngokweqile, noma isijeziso esinonya nesingavamile esinikezwayo.” Eziboshweni, lokhu kuyisivikelo somthetho-mthethweni esiqondile ezimweni zokuxhashazwa nokwelashwa. Izinkantolo ziye zachaza ukuthi “ukungalawuleki nokungajwayelekile” njengokubonisa izindinganiso zesiko lokuhlonipheka. Lokhu kusho ukuthi imikhuba eyake yamukeleka [1] njengokubhaxabulwa, ukusetshenziswa kwamaketanga, noma ukungakhathaleli ngenhloso ezidingweni ezingathi sína zezokwelapha, manje ingephula iSiphendumiso Seziyisishiyagalombili.

Estelle v. Gamble [1997], iNkantolo Ephakeme yathi ukungazinaki ngamabomu izidingo ezingathi sína zesiboshwa kuhlanganisa isijeziso sonya nesingavamile. Lelocala lavela lapho isiboshwa simangalela ukuthi izikhulu zasejele zehluleka ukunikeza ukwelashwa okwanele kokulimala kweqolo lapho zisebenza. INkantolo yaqaphela ukuthi uhulumeni unomthwalo wokunikeza ukunakekelwa kwezokwelapha ngenxa yokuthi iziboshwa azikwazi ukufuna ukunakekelwa kwazo. Indinganiso iye yasetshenziswa ezinkulungwaneni zecala elihilela ukunakekelwa kwamazinyo ukuze zixilongenwe ngengqondo.

Ngokufanayo, iSichibiyelo seNguqulo Sesishiyagalombili silawula izimo zokuvalelwa. Rhodes v. Chapman (19981], iNkantolo yanquma ukuthi ukuthwala izithunjwa kabili (iziboshwa ezimbili ezisengqamulweni elilodwa lomuntu) kwakungezona iziboshwa ezingaziphathi ngokusemthethweni. Nokho, izimo ezincisha iziboshwa “isilinganiso esiphucuzekile sezidingo zokuphila,” njengokukhucululwa kwendleko, ukudla okwanele, noma ukuphepha ebudloveni, ukuvinjelwa. Ukuvalelwa kwezingalalisi kubekelwe inselele; ukuvaleka okunwe kungabangela umonakalo omkhulu ongokwengqondo nangaphansi kwezimo ezithile, zitholakele ukwephula isilinganiso sesilinganiso seminyango esingu-8.

Isichibiyelo Seshumi Nane: Inqubo Efanele Nesivikelo Esilinganayo

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane siyinsika yesibili yesivikelo somthetho-sisekelo seziboshwa nababoshiwe.

  • Imicimbi eyisisekelo: Ku [FOLT] . McDonnell [19974], iNkantolo yathi lapho izikhulu zasejele zijezisa iziboshwa ngezindlela ezizincisha ukuboleka kahle ngesikhathi noma zibopha ukuvalelwa kodwa, kumelwe zinikeze okungenani inqubo efanelekile, isaziso sokulalela, nenkulumo yezizathu.
  • Ababambeli bamajaji: ngoba abatholakali beboshiwe, abathunjwa abangaphambi kwecala abanakujeziswa. Ngaphansi Bell v.Wolfish [1997], izimo nemingcele kungokomthetho-mthethweni kuphela uma kuhlobene ngokusemthethweni nomgomo kahulumeni ongokomthetho, njengokulondekile noma uhlelo."futhi futhi okungami kakhulu ngenxa yaleyonjongo. Lokhu kubeka umthwalo osindayo kuhulumeni kunaseziboshwa eziboshiwe yibo.
  • [[FLT: 0] Isivikelo esiKhuthaziweyo: I-Univile Protection Claus ibalela ubandlululo olusekelwe ngokohlanga, enkolweni, noma kwezinye izigaba ezisolwayo. Ababoshi baye bayisebenzisa ukuze bagxeke izimiso zokuhlola izigebengu ngokuphathelene nokuhanjwa, ukuhlelwa kwezinhlelo, nokuyalwa. Johnson v. California [2005], iNkakhulu isebenzisa i-sclock eqekekiseni eliqinile enkambisweni yejele ebeka iziboshwa icala ngezinsuku ezingu-60 phakathi nesabelo sokuqala, inquma ukuthi lenkambiso kumelwe ukuba isebenze isithakazelo esiqinile.

ISichibiyelo Sokuqala: Inkululeko Yokukhuluma Nenkolo

Ababoshi balondoloza amalungelo okuHlaziya kokuqala, nakuba belinganiselwe yizithakazelo ezingokomthetho zokubhala. Bangase bavumelane nabameli, umkhaya, nemithombo yezindaba, futhi banelungelo lokuqhuba inkolo yabo − kuhlanganise nokuthola imibhalo engokwenkolo, izindawo zokudlela, kanye namathuba okukhulekela. Icala elivelele i-hinder v. Safley [1987] i-scread: umthetho wejele owenqabela amalungelo omthetho weziboshwa uyasebenza uma “kuhlangene ngokomthetho noma ngenxa yezithakazelo zezeluleko. Lendinganiso ehloniphekile iqinisekisa ukuthi izikhulu zasejele zinikeza imvume ebanzi, kodwa ayivumeli imingcele ewumthetho ewumthetho noma ewuyindizayo.

Ngokwesibonelo, O’LO v. Ibhukwana likaShabazz (1987), iNkantolo yasekela inkambiso eyavimbela iziboshwa ezingamaSulumane ukuba zingene enkonzweni yenkolo yamasonto onke ngenxa yokuthi yayiphikisana nezimiso zomsebenzi wasejele, ithola inkambiso ehlobene ngokunengqondo nokulondeka nokuvuselelwa. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi “ukulinganisela” ngokuvamile kuvumela amalungelo ukuba anyathelwe, kodwa kuhlale kuyizivivinyo olubusayo.

ISichibiyelo Sesine: Ukuphenyisisa Okungenangqondo

Abantu abahlaliwe baye banciphisa iSichibiyelo sesine sokuvikela ekuphenyeni. Ikhambi lithi isidingo sejele sokulondeka nokuhleleka sidlula ukulindele okuvamile kwezindaba zomuntu siqu. Hudson v. Palmer[ [19984], iNkantolo ikholelwa ukuthi iziboshwa azinathemba lokufihla iziboshwa emangqamuzaneni azo, zivumela ingqamuzana elivamile nenqubo iphendulwe ngaphandle kwemvume. Nokho, ukuphenya komzimba nezinye izinyathelo eziphambili zokuhlasela kumelwe kuqhutshwe ngendlela enengqondo futhi kungenziwangazenzisi noma ngokuhluphana. Iziboshwa eziboshiwe iziboshwa, iziboshwa eziboshwe, ivumela ingqamuzana elincane ukuba zikhoswe.

Izichibiyelo Zesihlanu Nezesithupha: Inqubo Neseluleko Esingokomthetho

ISichibiyelo sesihlanu sinikeza ukuthi akekho umuntu “ophoqelelwa kunoma iliphi icala lobugebengu ukuba abe ufakazi omelene naye.” Lesivikelo sidlulela eziboshweni ezibhekene namacala amasha noma izenzo zokujezisa ezingaholela ekuqulweni kobugebengu obungeziwe. Nokho, ukuqulwa kwecala lasejele kungokomphakathi, hhayi ubugebengu, ngakho ilungelo leSichibiyelo sesihlanu alisebenzi ngokuqondile ngaphandle kokuba izimemezelo zingasetshenziswa ecaleni lobugebengu elihlukene.

ISichibiyelo seSithandathu siqinisekisa ilungelo lokunikeza iseluleko. Iziboshwa ziye zahunyushwa zihlanganisa ilungelo lokuxhumana ngasese nabameli, futhi zikwazi ukungena emtatsheni wezincwadi zomthetho noma usizo olungokomthetho ukuze zilungiselele izicelo zezicelo, njengoba zisungulwe kubobs v. Smith[[FLT] [1] [777]. INkantolo iye yahlehlela emuva kulelo nxusa . Casey] v. [12] [96]] [96]), ilinganisela imfuneko yezikhathi lapho iziboshwa zibhekene umonakalo ongokomthetho ekuntuleni okukhona.

Icala Lenkantolo Ephakeme Elathonya Amalungelo Ababoshiwe

Graham v.Connor (1998): Ukucabangela ekusebenziseni amandla

Ku Graham v.Connor, iNkantolo yathi ithonya elinamandla elidlulele lalabo abakhululekile ekuthatheni indle lihlolwa ngaphansi ‘ kobulula beSichibiyelo sesine.’Nokho, iziboshwa eziboshwe ngeziboshwa, zifuna amandla adlulele ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo Sesishiyagalombili. Umehluko: iSiphakamiso sezeNkathiso sezeNguquko Yesine (ukubheka ukucabangela ngomqondo onengqondo), kuyilapho isaziso sesecala sisebenzisa ukunganaki kwe-Anglendreth Amendment noma indinganiso enonya, kuye ngokwezinga elisebenza ngalomthetho. Indaba ibonisa indlela ukuvikela komthetho okuhlukile ngokwesimo.

Estelle v. Gamble (1976): Ukunakekela kwezokwelapha njengelungelo lomthetho-sisekelo

Njengoba kuphawuliwe, lelicala laveza ukuthi ukungazinaki ngamabomu izidingo ezingathi sína zezokwelapha kuphula iSichibiyelo Sezigwegwe sesishiyagalombili. INkantolo yacabanga ukuthi ngemva kokuboshwa, uhulumeni uthatha umthwalo wemfanelo ngempilo nokuphepha kwesiboshwa. Kusukela ngaleso sikhathi, izinkantolo ziye zaphikisana nokuthi yini ehlanganisa “ukungabi nandaba”."Indinganiso edinga okungaphezu kokunganaki nje, kodwa okungaqondile. Icala lisalokhu liyikhomba inqubo yokunakekelwa kwempilo emajele.

Wolff v. McDonnell (1974): Inqubo efanele ekuyaleni

Phambi , iziboshwa zazingawaqapheli amalungelo afanele enqubo enqubweni yokujezisa. Inkantolo yayithi lapho isiyalo siphumela ekulahlekelweni izikweletu zesikhathi esihle noma ukuvalelwa ngokwecala, isiboshwa sinelungelo lokuqhubekela phambili isaziso esibhaliwe, ukuzwiwa okunelungelo lokubiza ofakazi (uma kungeyona ingozi), kanye namazwi abhaliwe alokho okutholakele.

tracker v. Safley (1987): Ukuhlola kokulinganisela

I-schener yamisa indinganiso "yobunengqondo” yokubukeza imithetho yasejele evimbela amalungelo omthetho-sisekelo. INkantolo yahlela izici ezine: (1) ukuthi kukhona ukuhlobana okunengqondo phakathi komthetho nesithakazelo sikahulumeni esingokomthetho; (2) ukuthi ezinye izindlela zokusebenzisa ilungelo zikhona yini; (3) ithonya lokuthatha ilungelo kuqashelwe onogada, ezinye iziboshwa, kanye nemithombo yamajele; futhi (4) ukungabikho kwezikho kwezikhombiso ezilungile. Lokhu kugxekwa kakhulu ngabameleli benkululeko yomphakathi, kodwa kuhlala kuyitshe legumbi lokuqala nelamahhost nelamahhost.

Johnson v. California (2005]: Umbala ne-Scrutiny eqinile

uJohnson, iNkantolo yalahla impikiswano yokuthi ukuhlolwa kobungani kwe-Turner kufanele kusebenze ekuhlukaniseni izinhlanga emajele. Kunalokho, yakholelwa ukuthi zonke izigaba zobuhlanga, ngisho nabaphathi bejele, kumelwe kwanelise ukucubungula okuqinile − izinga eliphakeme kakhulu lokuhlola. Icala elihilela umthetho weCalifornia wokuhlanganisa iziboshwa ngomjaho kuze kube izinsuku ezingu-60. INkantolo yathi lenkambiso yayidinga ukulunga okungagunyaziswe, okungagunyaziswanga, okuthiwe yisinqumo sombuso ukukwenza. Lesi sinqumo saqinisekisa futhi ukuthi isibopho somthetho wesizwe sokulingana sinweba ngisho nangemva kwezindonganiso zasejele.

Izinselele Nezinkinga Eziqhubekayo

Ukuvalwa Kwemoto Ngedwa Nempilo Yengqondo

Naphezu kokuvikelwa umthetho, ukuvalelwa wedwa kusalokhu kwanda emajele ase-U.A. Ababoshweni bangachitha iminyaka eminingi emangqamuzaneni amancane amahora angu - 23 ngosuku, ngokuvamile bengenawo umuntu owanele. Ukuhlola kuye kwahlobanisa ukuzihlukanisa isikhathi eside ngenxa yokuwohloka kwempilo yengqondo, ukuzibulala, nokucindezeleka kwengqondo ngemva kokukhishwa komthetho. ISivumelwano se-8h Simprimetic sokwenqabela izimo ezibangela ukuhlushwa kwengqondo, kodwa izinkantolo bezinqikaza ukuvalelwa komuntu yedwa ngokungavunyelwe. Amanye amazwe aye asungula izinguquko eziye zanciphisa ukusetshenziswa kwawo kwentsha, abesifazane abakhulelwe, nalabo abanezifo zengqondo, kodwa izinselele ziyaqhubeka. ISiphakathi i-Specioc Rapporture on Artigueptur iye yachazwa njengokuvalwa kokuhlushwa kwabantu okuqhubekayo.

Ukunganakekelwa Kwempilo Nengqondo Okufanele

Naphezu Estelle v. Gamble, izimiso eziningi zokuqondisa zizama ukuhlangabezana ngisho nezindinganiso zokunakekela. Ukulibala ekwelashweni, amagumbi ezokwelapha asebenzayo, futhi ukuhluleka ukulawula izifo ezingapheli ezinjengoshukela nesandulela sivame kakhulu. Ukunakekela kwengqondo kuntula kakhulu; inani leziboshwa ezigula kakhulu engqondweni liyanda, kodwa izakhiwo eziningi ezingenazo izazi zezifo zengqondo ezanele noma abeluleki. Ngo-2023, umahluleli wezwe wase-Alabamillama wathola ukuthi iSigwebo sezwe seSinxephezelo seMinyango Sesishiyagalo sezelelwe ukuhluleka ukunikeza izinkonzo zezempilo ezifanele zengqondo. Ngaphandle kokwengamela izithembiso eziqinile nemithombo yemithetho yezomthetho yezomthetho ukulondoloza izithembiso zihlala zingenalutho.

Ukukhohlwa Kokufuduka

Abathunjwa abadingiswayo bangabantu abahlukile. Abakhokhiswa isijeziso kodwa balindele ukususwa. Nokho, bavame ukubhekana nezimo ezifana nezimajele − nokuboshwa ngokujeziswa ngezigaba ezithile, ukulinganiselwa kokumelelwa ngokomthetho, nokuvalelwa isikhathi eside. Izinkantolo ziye zaqaphela ukuthi iSimemezelo seSichibiyelo sesihlanu siyasebenza kubabambeli abathunyelwa kwamanye amazwe, futhi ezinye izinkantolo eziphansi ziphethe ukuthi ukuvalelwa kwabantu ngaphandle kwesibopho okuqhubekayo kuphula inqubo efanele. Nokho, uhulumeni uyaqhubeka uphikisa igunya lezenzwe ngaphansi kwemithetho yokuthutha, okuholela ekuqhutshweni ngokuqhubekayo.

Umehluko Okhona Ngokobuhlanga Nobuhlanga

Ama-Afrika nabemi base-Hispanic baboshwa ngokungenakulinganiswa. Nakuba i-Community Protection Claus’s Convince yenqabela ukubandlululwa ngamabomu, ukwahlukana kwezimiso kuvela enhlanganiseleni yezici ezihlanganisa ukungalingani kwezenhlalo nezomnotho, imikhuba yomthetho ecwasanayo, nezimiso zokugcinwa kwemithetho ehlukene. Izinkantolo bezingabaza ukuthola ukuphambaniswa kwezimiso ezigcwele ngaphandle kobufakazi benhloso yokucwasa. Noma kunjalo, ukuhlukaniswa komthetho kuphakamisa imibuzo enzulu ngobulungisa obulinganayo kanye nokufaneleka kokugcinwa kwabantu abaningi.

Ukukhohlisa Nemizamo Yenguquko

Izinhlangano zamalungelo omphakathi − njenge- American Libersion Union, iprojekthi ye-, kanye neMelikan Bar Association[[[FLT]][FLT]]][i-"i-ligitated projectsss [izecala lamalungelo eziboshwa futhi umsekeli wenguquko yezimiso. Izindawo eziyisihluthulelo zihlanganisa:

Imithetho, iSishaya - mthetho sidlulise iSiphakamiso sokuDala I-Divrain Eleinetion Act (2003) ukuze silungise ubudlova obungokobulili, futhi muva nje, iSiphakamiso Sokuqala (2088) sihloselwe ukunciphisa izigwebo ezithile zokwenqabelana nokuncishiswa kwemisho. Nokho, umsebenzi omkhulu usalokhu ukhona esigabeni lapho abantu abaningi beboshiwe beboshwe khona.

Ukubaluleka okuqhubekayo kwesivikelo somthetho-sisekelo akunakumiswa ngokweqile. Izinkantolo zisebenza njengomsunguli wokugcina lapho izinhlangano eziphethe zidlula, kodwa ukunikeza imvume kuthatha kancane futhi kungenisa inzuzo. Ekugcineni, umphakathi onobulungisa kumelwe uqinisekise ukuthi ukuphathwa kweziboshwa nabaphethweyo kubonakalisa izindinganiso eziphezulu kakhulu zomthetho: isithunzi somuntu, ukungaguquguquki, nenkululeko kunya. Lezizindinganiso azizona nje izimfundiso ezingokomthetho; ziyisilinganiso sokuzinikela kwethu ekubuseni umthetho.