Izimiso ze-Electoral ziyimithetho eyisisekelo yokuncintisana kwentando yeningi. Baguqula amavoti ezihlalweni, futhi benza kanjalo, babumba izimiso zeqembu, ukwakhiwa kukahulumeni, kanye nohlobo lwezingxabano zezombangazwe. Phakathi kwemikhaya ehlukene yezimiso ze-electoral, izimiso ezinkulu zigujwa ngenxa yobulula bazo, ukuthambekela kwabo ukuveza isigaba esisodwa sohulumeni abaningi, kanye nokuziphendulela kwabo ngokuqondile. Kodwa, emiphakathini, ukuhlukana okukhulu phakathi kwezinhlanga, inkolo, noma imigqa yolimi, ukusebenza kwalezi zimiso zezombangazwe, kungaveza izindlela eziqinile zezombangazwe. Lokhu kuhlola ubuhlobo phakathi kwemithetho emikhulu elawulayo nokuzinziwa kwezombangazwe, ukuhlola ukuthi kungani isimiso esisebenza kahle emongweni owodwa singenza ukuhlukana nokuxabana kolunye.

Ukuchaza Izimiso Ezinkulu

Izimiso ze-Majoritarian zichazwa ngesimiso sokuthi abanqobi bamelela iqembu elikhulu kakhulu labavoti. Uhlobo oluvelele kakhulu luhlanganisa i-FOR-P- Post (FPP), i-FRound System ye-Round (TRS), ne-Alternative Vote (AV). Ukuqonda ukuhluka kwabanqobi ngabanye kubalulekile ekuqondeni imiphumela yabo encibilikayo emiphakathini ehlukene.

I-FPTP iyindlela elula kakhulu: umvoti onezigqi ezigcwele esifundeni esisodwa unqoba isihlalo. Umthetho kaDuverger uyaziwa kakhulu ngokuthi i-FPP uvame ukuveza isimiso esinezingxenye ezimbili, njengoba amaqembu amancane ekhashwa ngokuvota okuhleliwe kanye nomphumela omisiwe wokujezisa indawo yesithathu yabagcini besifunda. Emphakathini oneziphambano ezinqamule i-cleavages, lokhu kungaholela ekulungiseni ukubusa okungaguquguquki phakathi kwamaqembu amabili asekelwe ezindaweni ezibanzi. Nokho, emphakathini ohlukeneyo, izisusa ezihlukene. Izingcingo ngokuvamile ziba izimoto ze-ft zenza imoto zesithathu endaweni ephezulu noma yesifunda, kanye nomphumela we-FPP ingaveza imiphumela ekhudlulekayo, ngokusakazwa ngobuningi.

U-TRS, ngokuvamile osetshenziselwa ukhetho lukamongameli, udinga umbhedeshi ukuba awine ingxenye enkulu yevoti. Uma kungekho mfundaze ofinyelela lokhu emzuzwaneni wokuqala, ukudunwa kuphakathi kwabancintiswano ababili abaphezulu. Nakuba lokhu kuqinisekisa ukuthi umnqobi omkhulu kakhulu usekelwa yiqembu lakhe, ukwenza kanjalo ngokwenza ukukhetha okubili okungabangela ukuba umongameli aphumele phambili eqenjini lesizwe elihlukile. Lokhu kungenza ukhetho olusekela umphangiselwano wokuqala eqenjini lesizwe okumelwe akhethe phakathi kwamaqembu amabili aphambili, ngokuvamile asondelene nompelesi sizwe uma enza ukuba aphume, noma amelane nelinye iqembu. Lokhu kungenza ukhetho olunamandla kakhulu lomongameli oncikene kakhulu ezizweni eziningi.

AV ivumela abavoti ukuba bahlele izikhundla ngokuthanda. Uma kungekho mvoti owina eziningi zezintando zakhe zokuqala, othatha i-admini ephansi kakhulu uqedwe, futhi amavoti abo athathwa ngokwezintando ezilandelayo. Lenqubo iyaqhubeka kuze kube yilapho oyedwa ethola umbhalisa enenani elikhulu. I-AV ingakhuthaza ukuvota okuxhumene ne-ethreaces, njengoba abavoti befuna ngentshiseko okuthandwayo okulandelayo nokukwesithathu ngaphandle kwesizinda sabo ukuze bafinyelele emnyango wokuwina. Lokhu kwakha isisusa esinamandla sokuwina, esihlanganisa nomkhankaso.

Isimo Sezinhlangano Ezihlukene

Imiphakathi ehlukene iphawulwa ngokuqashelwa okungapheli nokungaguquguquki kwezombangazwe. Lemifantu ivame ukubhalwa phansi, isekelwe ebuhlangani, ulimi, uhlanga, noma inkolo, kunokuba iphambane nesigaba noma imibono. Emiphakathini enjalo, ezombangazwe zivame ukuzizwa njengomdlalo owenziwe nge-zero ngokuqashelwa, ukuqashelwa kwempahla, nokulondeka okungokomzimba. Inselele eyinhloko yomklamo wobufundisi ukulawula lomncintiswano ojulile ngaphandle kokuwuvumela ukuba unciphe umbuso ngokwawo.

Arend Lijphart washo ngokudume kakhulu ukuthi imiphakathi ehlukene kakhulu idinga "intando yeningi yentando yeningi," ephawulwa yimifelandawonye emikhulu, ukuzibusa kwamaqembu ahlukene, ukulingana kwenkonzo yomphakathi nempahla enikezwayo, kanye nento encane eqondene nezindaba ezibalulekile. Lokhu kumelene ngokuqondile nesibonelo sokubusa kobuholi-nkulu be-Westminster, lapho iqembu elilodwa lilawula khona isikhulu futhi lingasebenzisa ipulatifomu lalo ngaphandle kokuhlangana. Ngakho ukukhethwa kwesimiso sokhetho kuhlangene ngokushelela ngokushelelayo kuhlangene nomthetho-sisekelo owe- sisekelo omkhulu futhi kungakhathaliseki ukuthi lokho kuhloselwe ukubusa kwesigaba esikhulu noma ukuhlanganyela amandla aphakeme.

Kubalulekile ukuhlukanisa imiphakathi ethuthukile enezikhundla eziqinile ezisuka ezifundeni ezintekenteke zangemva kwemvume. Ezweni elifana neBelgium, ukuhlukana kolimi kuphakathi kwesimo esizinzileyo nomnotho oqinile. Ngokuphambene, amazwe anjengeDemocratic Republic of the Congo noma Afghanistan abhekene nesigaba esiphansi, izinhlangano ezibuthakathaka, nezimpi ezinobudlova, lapho ukukhetha okungalawuleki kungabangela khona ubudlova obunganwebeka ngokuqondile.

Umphumela Wokuqina Kwezombangazwe Emiphakathini Ehlukene

Izimiso ezinkulu zibekela imiphakathi ehlukene inselele enkulu ngokuveza izisusa ezinamandla zokulahla ubuhlanga, ukukhipha ngokuhlelekile idlanzana elincane egunyeni, nokufaka umncintiswano wezombangazwe njengemali ewukunqoba yonke impi yokulawula umbuso nemithombo yawo.

Ukukhishwa Kwezizwe Nokuhlanyiswa Kwezizwe

Uma impumelelo engokhetho ichazwa ngokuthatha isigaba esikhulu kakhulu samavoti, futhi ukuthi isigaba sichazwa ngokwesizwe, abezombangazwe banezisusa ezinamandla zokuthatha izikhundla eziqinile ukuze bahlanganise iqembu labo eliyinhloko. Lokhu kushukumisa, okwaziwa ngokuthi ukunqanda ubuhlanga, kuvuza amazwi amakhulu kakhulu angahlanganisa impikiswano yezombangazwe ngokuthi "amelene nabo" umncintiswano oqinile. Abafuni ukuvumelana namanye amaqembu bahlaselwa kalula njengamambuka noma ababuthakathaka. Lokhu kungenza sonke isimiso sezombangazwe singene ezindaweni ezihlukene, okwenza ukubambisana kube nzima kakhulu.

Ukuqothulwa Okunamandla Nemithetho

Uma iqembu elincane likhishwa ngokuphelele ezihlalweni zokunqoba noma ekwakheni ingxenye kahulumeni ngenxa yobukhulu noma ukuhlukana kwendawo, isimiso sokhetho sibhekene nenkinga yokubekwa ngokomthetho. Uhulumeni ungamelela "unyuko" lwabavoti okhethweni lokugcina, kodwa limelela ingxenye eyodwa kuphela yomphakathi ogcwele kakhulu. Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, lokhu kungaholela ekukhetheni abafana abakhathazeki, ukuphikisa okungaphezulu, ukubhikisha kwemigwaqo, futhi ezimweni ezidlulele, ukuvukela okuhlome kakhulu, ukulwa kwezikhali noma izinhlangano zobuphikisi. Uma iqembu linomuzwa wokuthi alinakho indlela engokoqobo yokuthonya ngokhetho, isilingo sokulahla isimiso sombuso wentando yentando yeningi siba namandla kakhulu.

Impumelelo Ithatha Konke Futhi Ifuna

Emiphakathini eminingi ehlukene, ukulawulwa kwezwe kunikeza imithombo emikhulu yezomnotho, kuhlanganise nemali kawoyela, izivumelwano zezimayini, izimali zokuthuthukisa, nemisebenzi yezindawo zomphakathi. Ukucabanga okukhulu kokuwina kuchaza ukuthi ukuhlukana namandla ezombangazwe kususa ngokuqondile izinzuzo zezomnotho zeqembu. Lokhu kuphakamisa ngokuphawulekayo izigxaki zokhetho, kuzenze zibe khona imincintiswano engokwezimo zemali kunokulungisa kwezezombangazwe okuvamile. Uhlangothi olulahlekelwayo luncane kakhulu ekulahlekelweni kwalo ngaphandle kokungabi khona kombuso osekela izimali, okukhulisa isibindi sobudlova nobuqili.

Ukuhlola Izenzakalo Nobufakazi Obusekelwe Esabisayo

EKenya: Izingozi ZobuPresidenti BobuPhostoli

Ukhetho lukamongameli luka-2007 luyisiboniso esicacile sezingozi zezimiso zabaphathi bezwe ezihlukene. Izwe lisebenzisa kokubili iMikhathi Ebili Ye-Round yezihlalo zobumongameli ne-FPTP ezihlalweni ze-palamente. iKenya ihlukene kakhulu emigqeni yezinhlanga, phakathi kweKikuyu, iLuo, iKalenjin, neLuya emiphakathini. U- 2007 ugqashuka phakathi kwe-Cumbbent Muwai Kibiki (ophazanyiswe nguKiyu kanye noKalenjin) noRaila Odinga (o okhutshwe uLuo nabanye). Imiphumela yaphikiswa kakhulu, futhi yomibili imiphakathi yazisholo yayifuna ukunqoba. Ukuphumelela kwenkampane ye-Mongala yaguqula ukuvolo, kwabangela ukudlobana kwesizwe esabadedede enkulungwaneni nezinkulungwane.

Le nhlekelele yaphoqelela ukuba kubekwe isivumelwano esidala umthetho-sisekelo omusha owamiswa ngo-2010. Lomthetho-sisekelo wahlukanisa amandla abalulekile kumashumi amane asanda kusungulwa futhi wagunyaza ukwakhiwa kukahulumeni ohlangene lapho umongameli engekho eqenjini elawina izihlalo eziningi zephalamende. Nakuba lesi simiso sisalokhu sisalawula, ukubekwa ngokufanelekile kwamandla kanye nokusungulwa okucacile kwezimiso ezilawula amandla adinga amandla kumelela ukusabela kokwakheka kwezindlela eziphethe zemithetho ekhona.

ENigeria: Umbuso Wesifunda Nowesizwe

INigeria iqhuba isimiso se-FPTP soMhlangano wayo wesizwe neSimiso se-Round Esilungisiweyo sobubhishobhi obudinga kokubili ubuningi kanye nokuwina okungenani amaphesenti angama-25 amavoti ezingxenye ezimbili kwezintathu zezifunda. Izwe le-Nigeria libuswa amaqembu amathathu ayinhloko esizwe: i-Hausa-Fulani enyakatho-nyakatho, i-Yoruba eningizimu-ntshonalanga, ne-Igbo eseningizimu - mpumalanga, kanye namakhulu amaqeba amancane.

Isimiso se-FPTP ngokwezesayensi sincintisana ngokwezezombangazwe kulemigqa yesifunda. Ukunqoba ukuthamba kwezakhiwo, i-Nigeria ithembele kakhulu kuma-pact avamile, njenge "ezindaweni ezithile" simiso, lapho i-depatist ijikeleziswa khona phakathi kwenyakatho ne-Niger. Nokho, ukuhlelwa kwemali kawoyela ephakathi kakhulu kuhlangene nakho konke ukuhlakanipha kwe-FPTP kudala izikhalo eziqhubekayo phakathi kweqembu elincane le-Niger-rich Deltal. I-indawo yokwahlukahlukana kwezinhlanga eNigeria iyinselele eqhubekayo, ikakhulukazi ilawulwa ngombuso nomphakathi nothengiso kunokuba iphakanyiswe ngezakhiwo ezigcweleyo zesimiso sokhetho ngokwaso.

Inyakatho ye - Ireland: Ukusuka Ekuxoshweni Kuya Ekufuyweni Kwamandla

I-Northern Ireland inikeza esinye sezibonelo ezicacile zendlela inqubo yokukhetha engenziwa ngayo kungaba ngokuhlukanisa noma ukunciphisa. Iminyaka engu-50 ngemva kokwahlulwa ngo-1921, indawo yasebenzisa i-FPTP kumphakathi ohlukene kakhulu phakathi kwabahlangene nabashisekeli besizwe. Ngenxa yokuthi abanyunyana babenenani elikhulu, i-FPTP yaqinisekisa ukuthi bawina ngokunembile noma yiluphi ukhetho, basusa ngokungenamkhawulo idlanzana lesizwe egunyeni. Lenhlangano yahlanganiswa ngemingcele yeze-gerrymander ehlukanisa imingcele yemidanti nezindawo zomphakathi ezinqobile zokuhlala nokwabiwabelwa kwemisebenzi. Lesimiso sathuthukisa ngokuqondile amalungelo ezakhamuzi ngo-1960 kanye namashumi amathathu eminyaka alandela izingxabano ezaziwayo njengezeNhlulo.

I-Food Weappy ka-1998 ngokuyisisekelo yahlela kabusha isimiso sezombangazwe. Sathatha indawo ye-FPTP ngokuthumela i-Vote eyodwa (STV) ukuze ikhethele umhlangano wase-Northern Ireland futhi samisa umqondisi ophoqelelwe ophethe. i-STV ivumela ukumelelwa kwe-structure eMhlanganweni futhi ikhuthaza ukuthunyelwa kwe-vhoti enqamuleneyo. Lokhu kushintsha kwezakhiwo kwakubalulekile ekungeniseni wonke amaqembu enqubeni yezombangazwe futhi kwakha uhulumeni owenziwe ngobunye.

ENdiya: I - Majoritearian Anomaly

INdiya ifeza okuningi komathemba oMthetho kaDuverger nombono wokuntengantenga. Lizwe elihlukene kakhulu elinezilimi, izinkolo, namaqembu amaqembu ahlukene, kodwa liye laphumelela ekusebenziseni isimiso seFPTP iminyaka engaphezu kwengu-70. Emlandweni wayo weminyaka eminingi yangemva kokuzimela, i-Indian National Congress yasebenza njengeqembu elibamba wonke amaqembu athakazelelwa izithakazelo ezihlukahlukene futhi alawula izingxabano zangaphakathi ngezindawo eziphezulu.

Emashumini eminyaka amuva, ukuphakama kweBharatiya Janata Party (BJP) nokuncipha kweSishaya-Mkhandlu kuye kwadala isimiso seqembu elincintisanayo nelihlukene kakhulu. Nakuba iNdiya iye yabhekana nezenzakalo zobudlova bomphakathi nokubuyela emuva kwentando yeningi, isifundazwe siye sahlangana kakhulu. Izazi zithi lokhu kuqina kwesimiso esiqinile sikahulumeni waseNdiya, ukuhlelwa kabusha kwezifunda, ukuzimela kwenhlangano yayo yesizwe ne-okhestratement, kanye nokuhlangana kwezikhulu zezifunda. Umlando waseNdiya usikisela ukuthi i-FPTP ingasebenza emphakathini ohlukene kakhulu uma ezinye izimo zenhlangano neqembu lezinhlangano ziqinile.

Izindlela Zokuthuthukisa Nezinqubo

Njengoba kunezingozi ezibangelwa ubufundisi obumsulwa ezimweni ezihlukene, kuneminye imiklamo ehlukahlukene.

Umfuziselo ongokwengxenye (PR)

Uhlu lwe-Propotional medication and Mixbed-Monter Propotional (MMP) izimiso ezixubanisa ukumelelwa kwesihlalo seqembu nokuhlanganwa kwazo eduze nokuvota. Lokhu kuqinisekisa ukuthi amaphatho amelelwe kumthetho womthetho ngokwesilinganiso sawo, anike isigxobo esingokomthetho esimisweni sezombangazwe. I-MMP, esetshenziswa eJalimane nase-New Zealand, ihlanganisa ukumelelwa kwendawo kanye nesilinganiso esiphakeme sokulinganisa. Ukuhwebelana okuyinhloko kungokokuthi PR kungaholela ekudibaleni izimiso zeqembu nezinhlangano eziguquguqukayo, nakuba le-grop ngokuvamile iyingozi kakhulu kune-equat ekhiqiniswe yi-asteristism.

Ukuhlanganisa Amandla

Isibonelo sikaLijphart sidlulela ngalé kokukhetha isimiso sokhetho ukuba sihlanganise umfelandawonye omkhulu wabaholi abavela kuzo zonke izingxenye ezinkulu zomphakathi, ukuzimela kwezezici eziyinhloko, ukulingana kwezindawo ezingokwesiko, kanye ne-veto embalwa. Isimiso esiyinkimbinkimbi sikahulumeni waseBelgium ne-Northern Ireland Assembly ziyizibonelo zamanje zamalungiselelo omphakathi. Lesibonelo siklanyelwe ngokucacile ukusingatha ukwahlukana ngokuhlanganisa wonke amaqembu esikhulu, kodwa siye sagxekwa ngokuhlanganisa ukuhlanganisa i-odrona kwesizwe nokuqinisa i-politiki.

Imisebenzi Ebalulekile Nedluliselwayo

Izimiso ze-AV ne-STV zikhuthaza abazovota ukuba bakhe imifelandawonye emikhulu yokusekela ukuze bafinyelele emnyango owinayo. I-STV, ikakhulukazi, isetshenziswa eNyakatho Ireland naseMalta futhi iboniswe ekukhuthazeni ukuthunyelwa kwamavoti ngokuphambana, abavoti abavuzayo ababonwa njengabalinganiselayo nabakwaziyo ukuhlanganisa amaqembu ezinhlanga. Lendlela ifanelekela ngokukhethekile imiphakathi efuna ukubambisana kunokuba ixabane.

Umbuyisele wobuPresidenti ngokuphikisana nePhalamende

Ngaphandle kwendlela yokukhetha, isakhiwo segatsha eliphethe sigxeka kakhulu. UJuan Linz waphikisa ngokuthi ubumongameli buyingozi ngokwemvelo kakhulu kuhulumeni omusha wentando yeningi ngoba buqinile futhi bunqoba. Umongameli wesikhathi esimisiwe onamandla angokoqobo onamandla olawulayo akakwazi ukuvumelana nesimiso sephalamende, lapho abefundisi abakhulu bengathathelwa indawo ngokuvota kokungathembi. Emiphakathini ehlukene kakhulu, izimiso zephalamende noma izimiso ezivumela amandla aqinile anokuhanjwa ngokuvamile zithandwa kakhulu ngaphezu komqondo obalulekile wobuhlakani bephalamende obukhethiwe.

Ingxenye Yenhlangano Ebanzi

Kubalulekile ukuqaphela ukuthi isimiso sokukhetha asisebenzi endaweni engenalutho. Isimiso sobuphekula noma ukuthotshiswa kungahlanganisa isimiso sokulawula izifunda zomhlaba ngokuvumela idlanzana elivamile ukuba lizilawule endaweni, kunciphe izintambo zokhetho lwesizwe. Izinkantolo eziqinile nezikhomishano zokukhetha ezizimele zingavikela amalungelo amancane futhi ziqinisekise ubuqotho benqubo yokukhetha. Izimiso zeqembu ezivimbela amaqembu ayingozi noma ukugunyaza ukubusa ngentando yeningi zinganciphisa imiphumela emibi kakhulu yokukhetha kwezinhlanga.

Ukuhleleka kwemiphakathi ehlukene kuwumkhiqizo wesimiso somthetho-sisekelo sonke, hhayi nje indlela yokukhetha. Umthetho-sisekelo oklanywe kabi ungaphazamisa isimiso sokhetho olungcono, kuyilapho umthetho-sisekelo obekwe kahle ngezinye izikhathi ungabuyisela ukushiyeka kwesimiso sokhetho oluyinhloko. Isihluthulelo siwukwakha uhlelo oluvumela ukuphikisana kwezombangazwe kube yingxoxo eyakhayo kunokunikeza wonke amaqembu abalulekile ngesigxobo esinempumelelo ende.

Isiphetho

Akukho simiso sokhetho esiyikhambi lokulawula ukuhlukana okujulile kwezenhlalo. Ukukhetha phakathi kwezimiso eziyinhloko nezilandelanayo kuhilela ukudayisa okuyisisekelo phakathi kokunquma nokufakwa. Izimiso ze-Maritarian zinikeza ithemba lohulumeni abahlukene kanye kanye nokuziphendulela okucacile, kodwa zifaka engozini yokuhlukanisa izigaba ezincane ezihlala njalo nokuguqula izingxabano ze-athom eziyisisekelo. Izimiso ze-propontal nezokuhlanganisa i-compociation zinikeza ukufakwa nokumelelwa kombuso, kodwa zingaholela ekuthatheni i-gripy kanye nokuguqulwa phambili kweqembu lezombangazwe.

Isifundo esiyinhloko kubenzi bezimiso yisidingo esiphelele sokuqonda umongo. Emiphakathini ehlukene kakhulu ngokohlanga, ngokwenkolo, noma ngolimi, izingozi zobushiqela zivame ukuphakama. Umklamo ophumelelayo udinga ukubhekiswa ngokucophelela kwesakhiwo esithile se-cleavage, ukwaba kwezindawo, amandla ezinhlangano zesimiso senhlangano yamaqembu ezikhona, kanye namandla ezwe lonke. Umgomo kufanele ngaso sonke isikhathi ube ukuklama isimiso sobukhomputha esiqinile ngokwanele ukusingatha umehluko ngaphandle kokuhlukaniswa yiso.