Isisekelo Senkululeko Yangaphakathi YaseMelika: Ukuqonda Iziphendu Zomthetho - sisekelo

Indaba yamalungelo omphakathi e-United States ayifani ukusuka ekulungiseni ukumiswa kwemithetho elandelwayo kuya kuMthetho-sisekelo wayo. Njengoba iBhili of Rights yagunyazwa ngo-1791, ukulungisa ngakunye kuye kwandisa noma kwacacisa amalungelo abantu abamelene nohulumeni ngokuphambana, ngokuhlasela umehluko owengeziwe wezimiso eziye zahlupha isizwe. Ukuqonda lezi zinguquko akuyona nje indlela yemfundo yemfundo; kubalulekile ekuqondeni itshe elingokomthetho elikhona kumalungelo omphakathi wanamuhla. Lesi sihloko sihlola ukuncintisana okukhulu komthetho wezwe owenziwe yinguquko engcono kakhulu, ukuhlolwa kwamalungelo omphakathi aseMelika, izinhlelo zawo, amalungiselelo, nefa elihlala njalo emphakathiniwezwe.

Uhambo lwamalungelo omphakathi ngokulungisa umthetho-sisekelo luyindaba yentuthuko eqhubekayo, izimpi zezombangazwe ezinonya, nemizamo ephikelelayo yemiphakathi ehluzekile yokusho izithembiso zeSimemezelo sokuzibusa. Kusukela ekuqedweni kwezigqila kuya ekuqinisekisweni kwesivikelo esifanayo nokwanda kwamalungelo okuvota, ukuncishiswa kwenkululeko esemthethweni kumelela ukucusumbula okugxekayo kwezeluleko eziqhubekayo zentando yeningi eMelika. Njengoba sihlola lezizigijikishane ezingokomthetho, sibona kokubili amandla oshintsho lomthetho-mthetho kanye nemingcele eqhubekayo phakathi komthetho nokuhlangenwe nakho.

Isiqinisekiso Samalungelo Abantu: Isivikelo Sasekuqaleni Senkululeko

Ngo-1791, izinguquko zokuqala eziyishumi ze-Constitution ye-U.S. . . kwaziwa ngokulandelana njenge-Bill of Rights (*) isekelo eliyisisekelo lenkululeko yomuntu ngamunye emelene nesenzo sikahulumeni. Nakuba lezi zinguquko zingahlelwanga ngokucacile njengelungiselelo lamalungelo omphakathi, zabeka isisekelo semibango eminingi yamuva. I-Bill of Rights yazalwa e-Anti-Federalist ikhathalela ukuthi uMthetho-sisekelo omusha awunaziqinisekiso ezanele zenkululeko yomuntu siqu. UJames Madison, ekuqaleni ukungakholelwa kwezo zimpoqo zomthetho, ekugcineni wabekwa ezisekelwe ezinhlwini zomhlangano zesifunda.

Izinguquko eziningana eziseBill of Rights ziye zaba umnyombo wamalungelo omphakathi nokumangalelwa:

  • Isichibiyeli sokuqala: siqinisekisa inkululeko yenkolo, inkulumo, ukunyathelisa, umhlangano, nelungelo lokunxusa uhulumeni. Lokhu kulungisa kuye kwaba isisekelo sezinhlangano zamalungelo ezakhamuzi ezingenakubalwa, ezivumela abashisekeli ukuba bahlele, bakhulume, futhi bafune ushintsho. Ngaphandle kwayo, ukusungulwa kwamalungelo abantu kwabango-1950 no-1960 bekungeke kwenzeke.
  • Isichibiyeli sonyaka: sivikela ekuphenyeni okungacabangeli nasekuqulekeni. Emkhakheni wamalungelo omphakathi, lokhu kulungisa kuye kwasetshenziselwa ukubekela inselele imisebenzi yamaphoyisa engokohlanga neyobuhlanga, ikakhulukazi njengoba iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yalwa nokulinganisela phakathi kwegunya lokugcinwa komthetho kanye nezindaba zomuntu siqu.
  • Isichibiyeli se-pith: siqinisekisa ilungelo lenqubo efanelekile yomthetho futhi sivikela ekuziphindiseleni. Lokhu kulungisa kuye kwaba okubaluleke kakhulu emizamweni yomthetho yokuguqula izivumelwano zobugebengu, ikakhulukazi ngokuphathelene nokuvuma izono ngokuphoqelelwa kanye nokuphatha ngokungakhethi abamangalelwa kungakhathaliseki uhlanga noma isimo sezomnotho.
  • Isichibiyeli se-eghth dometer:[ Ibheyili ephakeme, izihlawu, izijeziso ezinonya nezingajwayelekile. Lokhu kulungisa kuye kwasebenza kakhulu ezimpikiswaneni eziphathelene nokuboshwa kwabantu abaningi, imisho ebophekile, nesigwebo sokufa (isigwebo) konke okungahlangene nezinga eliphakeme lezinhlanga nelesizwe.

Nakuba iBill of Rights ekuqaleni yayisebenza kuhulumeni kahulumeni, iSichibiyelo seSikhawulo se 14 seSikhawulo sika-Ayth (Inqubo ka-Claus) kamuva "sifake" eziningi zalezisivikelo kuhulumeni bendawo ngenqubo eyaziwa ngokuthi i-complificial. Lokhu kwanda kwenza iBill of Rights yaba ithuluzi elinamandla kumelelwa namalungelo omphakathi kulo lonke izwe.

Izinqumo Zokwakha: Ukunciphisa Inkululeko Nezakhamuzi

Ngemva kweMpi Yangaphakathi, izinguquko ezintathu ngokuyisisekelo zaguqula uMthetho-sisekelo kanye nencazelo yezakhamuzi zaseMelika.

ISichibiyelo Se - 13: Ukuphela Kobugqila Obusemthethweni

I-Rosed yamiswa ngo-1865, iSichibiyelo seshumi nantathu saqeda ubugqila nobugqila obungahlonisiwe "ngaphandle kwesijeziso sobugebengu obuzobekwa kubo." Lombhalo olula kodwa owenguquko wakhulula cishe izigidi ezine zaseMelika abagqilazwayo futhi walahla isikhungo esasihlukanise isizwe kusukela sasungulwa. ISishayamthetho sadluliswa ngoJanuwa ngo-1865 futhi sagunyazwa yizifunda zika-December walowonyaka, sisenza saba esokuqala seziNguqulo.

ISichibiyelo seshumi nantathu "isimiso sokukhipha iziphakamiso ngaphandle kwecala" sadala igebe eliye laba nemiphumela enzima nekhathazayo. Izifundazwe zaseNingizimu zamisa ngokushesha "Imithetho Emnyama" ebangela ukuba amacala amancane abekwe umthetho, okwaholela ekuboshweni nasekusebenzeni ngempoqo kwaseMelika (a system systems) eqhubekela izizukulwane ngeziboshwa ngokuboshwa namaqembu amaqembu alandelanayo. Ngisho nanamuhla, ukukhishwa kweSichibiyelo seshumi nantathu ngenxa yomsebenzi wasejele kuhlala kuseyindaba yokuphikisana, njengoba izigidi zabantu ababoshwelwe ngenxa yemali ngehora ngaphandle kwemithetho evamile yezisebenzi. Ifa le-andementation likhulula futhi liyinkimbinkimbi kakhulu.

ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nane: ISiphambano Samalungelo Omphakathi

Ngo-1868, iSichibiyelo seshumi nane sibhekwa kabanzi njengelungiselelo elibaluleke kakhulu lomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo lamalungelo omphakathi emlandweni waseMelika. Ingxenye yaso ezinhlanu ikhuluma ngelungelo lokuba izakhamuzi, inqubo efanele, isivikelo esifanayo, nemiphumela yezindawo eziphika ilungelo lokuvota. Izikhombo eziyinhloko ze-antement ziye zaba isisekelo sezinqumo ezivelele zesinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme enwebeka amalungelo abantu ezilinganisweni eziningi:

  • ICITrifizer Claus: Isinqumo esinedumela elibi seNkantolo Ephakeme (157] ku- .Dred Scott v. Sandford[ ngokusho ukuthi bonke abantu abazelwe noma abadaliweyo eUnited States bayizakhamuzi. Lomgqamo ube useke oyinhloko wokuphikisana ngesizwe sobuzibulo nesimiso sokufuduka.
  • I-Seed Process Ilindelekile Claus: Iprojekthi zisho ukuthi ukuncisha noma ubani "ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho." lesi sigqebhezana siye sasetshenziselwa ukusebenzisa ingxenye enkulu yeBhili lamaLungelo kuhulumeni (ukuhlukanisa) nokumisa amalungelo ayisisekelo ezindaba zomuntu siqu, kuhlanganise nalawo ahlobene nomshado nomkhaya.
  • [[FLT: 0] Isivikelo esingokomthetho sifuna ukunikeza isivikelo esifanayo ngaphansi komthetho kubo bonke abantu abangaphansi kwegunya labo. Lomshoshaphansi uye waba yisisekelo sokunqoba okukhulu kwamalungelo omphakathi, kuhlanganise Brown v. Ibhodi lemfundo (185] [54]) eqede isikole esisemthethweni, kanye ewell v. Hodges[[FLD:5] (20]) (20) i-umshado ofanayo owenziwe ngonyuko lwezente.

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane sihlanganisa neSigaba 3, esisusa ehhovisi likahulumeni noma ubani owayehileleke ekuvukeleni noma ekuvukeleni − ilungiselelo elathola ukunakwa okusha ngemva kokuhlasela kuka-January 6, 2021 Capitol. Ngaphezu kwalokho, iCandelo 5 linikeza uMkhandlu amandla okuphoqelela ukulungisiswa komthetho ofanelekile, oye waba isisekelo semithetho ebaluleke kakhulu yamalungelo abantu enjenge - Civil Rights Act ka - 1964.

Naphezu kolimi lwayo olubanzi, isithembiso seSichibiyelo seshumi nane sesivikelo esifanayo salulazwa kakhulu izincazelo ezinhle zeNkantolo ePhakemekazi ngasekupheleni kwekhulu le-19, ikakhulukazi enkathini ye eHlasayo-Indlu [ [1873]] ne Pnet v v. Ferguson [1866], eyamisa "Imfundiso kodwa elinganayo". Yaze yaqala ukugcwalisa amandla ayo njengesivikelo sokulwa nobandlululo.

ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nanhlanu: Ilungelo Lokuthumelela Amadoda AseMelika AseAfrika Imvume

I-Created Reformation yabekwa ngo-1870, inqabela ohulumeni bakahulumeni bezwe nohulumeni ukuba baphike noma bavimbele ilungelo lokuvota ngokusekelwe "kwenkaba, ibala, noma isimo sobugqila sangaphambili" lokhu kwakuyisinyathelo esikhulu sokuthatha i-uffranse, kodwa kwakunemingcele ephawulekayo: ayizange iqinisekise ilungelo lokuvota noma ubani, futhi ayinqabelanga ukuhlola ukufunda, intela yokuvota, noma ezinye izisetshenziswa zokukhipha ubugebengu ezithi zathatha ngokushesha ukulahla i-franchingenticive African American Revotion.

Ukumiswa komthetho wokulungisa kwakuqala kwaba namandla phakathi nokuvuselelwa kwezakhiwo, lapho amadoda aseAfrika evota ngamanani amakhulu futhi ekhetha abameleli bezwe eliphethe izishaya-mthetho neSishaya-mthetho − kuhlanganise noHiram Revels, isikhulu sokuqala saseAfrika U.S., owathatha isikhundla ngo-1870. Nokho, ukuphela kwemithetho yokulungisa ngo-1877 nokunyuka kwemithetho kaJim Crow kwayiqeda ngokuphumelelayo iSiphendulo seshumi elinesihlanu eNingizimu cishe ngekhulu leminyaka. NgaseNingizimu amazwe asebenzisa izinhlobonhlobo zezindlela zokuvimbela ukubuyiselwa: umkhulu (ukukhulula kuphela lawo okhokhokhokho bawo ababevote kuphela ngaphambi kuka-18677), ukuhlola kobucala, ukukhokha intela, nokukhokha intela kanye nobudlova obusobala emaqenjinini eKlu Klu Klan.

ISichibiyelo Sabesifazane Esicasulayo: ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nesishiyagalolunye

Ngo-1920 ngemva kwamashumi eminyaka yokuthatha isinyathelo ngokuzitika kwenhlangano yabesifazane, iSichibiyelo seshumi elinesithoba sithi ilungelo lokuvota "angeke linqatshwe noma livalelwe i-United States noma yiliphi iZwe ngenxa yobulili." Lokhu kwaba ukunqoba okuphawulekayo kwamalungelo abesifazane, kodwa kubalulekile ukuqaphela ukuthi ukunqandwa akuzange kuqale kubangele bonke abesifazane ukuba banciphe ngokushesha. Abesifazane boMdabu baseMelika babekhishwa kakhulu kuze kube yilapho iSivumelo Sabanini saseNdiya sithatha i-1924, nabesifazane base-Asia babhekenemingcele yesizwe ngenxa yemingcele esekelwe ezinhlangani. Abesifazane base-Afrika, ikakhulukazi eNingizimu, baqhubeka bebhekene nemikhuba efanayo yokuvota ubugebengu njengamadoda aseMelika kuze kube iSivumelo sika-1965.

ISichibiyelo seshumi elinesine simelela isiphetho senhlangano eyaqala ngokusemthethweni eSivumelwaneni seNeneca Falls ngo-1848. Abaholi abanjengoSusan B. Anthony, u-Elizabeth Cady Stanton, futhi kamuva u-Alice Paul noCarrie Chapman Catt basebenzisa uchungechunge lwamacebo, kusukela emikhankasweni kahulumeni ngempoqo yesifundazwe ukuqondisa nokulungisa umthetho-sisekelo. Ukulwela abesifazane kwaqala ngokulandelana nezinye izimpi zamalungelo omphakathi, ngezinye izikhathi ngokubambisana nangezikhathi ezithile ngokuphikisana. Inhlangano yesizwe iAmerican Woman Saffnge Association yahlukanisa iSiphendulo seshumi elinesihlanu, ngeminyango ephikisa i-suffra emelene nempikiswayo ngoba yayingahlanganisi abesifazane, kuyilapho abanye beyisekela njengeseqenjini lokulwa kwezindawo zonke.

ISichibiyelo Se - 20 Seminyaka Engamashumi Amane: Ukusakaza Intela Yempova

Ngo-1946, iSichibiyelo se-Fourth Reformation sasinqabela intela yokuvota kuhulumeni wokhetho. Intela yokubheja yayisetshenziswa kabanzi ezifundazweni zaseNingizimu kusukela ekupheleni kwekhulu le-19 njengendlela yokususa abavoti baseMelika abaNsundu, idinga ukukhokhwa kwemali izakhamuzi eziningi ezimpofu ezazingenakuyikhokha. Ukulungisa kwakuyimpendulo eqondile ezimfunekweni zelungelo lomphakathi zokuvota, futhi kwadlula ngeKhomishane ye-bipartistan kanye nokusekela okunamandla kwe-birtistan ngemva kweminyaka eminingi ye-accom.

Nakuba iSichibiyelo samashumi amabili nane seSichibiyelo sasebenza kuphela kukhetho lukahulumeni, kamuva iNkantolo Ephakeme yanquma ku-[Virginia State Board of EFomatis (1966) ukuthi intela yokuhlola yayingavumelani nemithetho kahulumeni yokukhetha ngaphansi komthetho wokuvikela u-Exmement Claus eSigqini seSichibiyelo se-14. Lesi sinqumo savala indinyana esasingavumela amazwe ukuba alondoloze intela yokukhokha intela kazwe nokhetho lwendawo. Imiphumela yokuvota yaba khona ngokushesha: ukubhalisa i-vota phakathi kwama-Afrika eNingizimu, nakuba yayithatha umthetho owengeziwe weSivumelo samaLungelo ka-6565.[25]

Imithetho Ewuphawu YaseLand: I - Voting Rights Act ka - 1965

Nakuba ingesona isilungiso somthetho-mthetho, uMthendeleko we-Voing Rights ka-1965 mhlawumbe uyingxenye ebaluleke kakhulu yomthetho wamalungelo abantu emlandweni waseMelika, futhi awupheleli endabeni yokulungisa umthetho-sisekelo. Lo Mthetho wadluliselwa ukuze uphoqelele isivikelo seSichibiyelo seshumi elinesihlanu somthetho-mthetho futhi uqede imikhuba ehlukahlukene yokukhipha ubandlululo eyaye yaqeda ukuqedwa kwekhulu leminyaka.

  • Ukukhetha 5: Izifunda ezifunekayo kanye nomlando wokucwasa ngokuvota ukuze uthole imvume kahulumeni ("ukuvula imvume") ngaphambi kokushintsha imithetho yokuvota noma izinqubo. Lelilungiselelo laphumelela kakhulu ekuvimbeleni izinguquko zomthetho womthetho.
  • Ukukhetha 2:[ kwaveza noma yimuphi umkhuba wokuvota ophumela ekucwaseni ngesisekelo sohlanga, umbala, noma ulimi oluncane.
  • Izihloli zeFederal: wagunyaza uhulumeni kahulumeni ukuba abhalise abavoti ezindaweni lapho izikhulu zendawo zenqaba ukwenza kanjalo.

IVoting Rights Act yaholela ekwandeni okukhulu kokubhaliswa kwevoti encane nokuhlanganyela. Ngokwesibonelo, eMississippi, amaphesenti abavoti abafanele baseMelika ababhaliswa e-Afrika anyuka kusukela ku-6,7% ngo-1994 kuya ku- 59.8% ngo-1967. Nokho, isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme ka-2013 [ku- Shelby County v. I-Hander yaqeda inqubo yokukhombisa isigaba 5, ngokuphumelelayo ukuqeda imfuneko yokubhalisa imvume. Eminyakeni eminingi kusukela lapho, amazwe amaningi aye amisa imingcele yokuvota emisha ethinta idla idlana ngokuphindwe ka-3, imposiso ngesidingo esiqhubekayo sesenzo somhlangano.

Izinqumo Zamuva Nempi Eqhubekayo

Nakuba kungekho zinguquko ezintsha eziye zenezelwa kuMthetho-sisekelo kusukela ngo-1992 (ISichibiyelo samashumi amabili nanhlanu, esiphathelene nenkokhelo yenhlangano), umzabalazo wamalungelo omphakathi uyaqhubeka ngomthetho, izinqumo zenkantolo, nezinhlangano zomphakathi. Izinguquko eziningi ezihlongozwayo zisekhona ezimpikiswaneni zamalungelo omphakathi zanamuhla:

ISichibiyelo Samalungelo Alinganayo (ERA)

Isivumelwano sokuqala esahlongozwa ngo-1923 futhi sadluliswa yiSishaya-mthetho ngo-1972, i-ERA yayiyoqinisekisa amalungelo alinganayo ngaphansi komthetho kungakhathaliseki ubulili. Nakuba ekugcineni amazwe angu-38 avumelana nawo, isikhathi sokunqanyulwa kwemiqhano sidlulile, futhi izimpi ezingokomthetho ziyaqhubeka ukuthi ukunqandwa kusengabhekwa yini njengengxenye yoMthetho-sisekelo. i-ERA iseyindawo ebaluleke kakhulu kwabameleli abangamadoda, ikakhulukazi ngokucabangela izinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme eziye zanciphisa amalungelo okuzala kanye nezinye isivikelo.

ISichibiyelo Samashumi Amabili Nesithupha

Ngo - 1971, lokhu kuncishiswa kwehlisa inkathi yokuvota yaba ngu - 18, nakuba ngokuyinhloko kungakona ukuncishiswa kwamalungelo omphakathi ngenxa yokulingana ngokohlanga noma ubulili, kwakuyimpendulo empikiswaneni yokuthi uma abantu abasha babebadala ngokwanele ukuba balwe eMpini yaseVietnam, kufanele babe badala ngokwanele ukuba bavote. Ukulungisa kuhlanganisa ukubusa ngentando yeningi futhi ngokuvamile kuxoxwa ngakho endabeni yesivumelwano somphakathi sentsha.

Izinselele Eziqhubekayo Zomthetho - sisekelo

Izindaba zamalungelo abantu zamuva ziyaqhubeka ziphakamisa imibuzo ewumthetho - sisekelo engase ekugcineni iholele ekulungiseni noma ekuchazeni kabusha lawo akhona.

  • LBTQ+ amalungelo: Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme emshadweni ofanayo (bergefell[]) kanye nokucwaswa emsebenzini ([Bostock v. County)) i-Clayton County [)] ibuye yandisa isivikelo samalungelo omphakathi, kodwa abasekeli bayaqhubeka becindezela umthetho womthetho womthetho we-ogalelo-mthetho nokwe-mthetho.
  • Amalungelo okuvota: Ekulandeleni Shelby County [, kunemizamo eqhubekayo ukubuyisela i-Voting Rights Act yesivikelo somthetho omusha njengomthetho kaJohn Lewis Voting According Rights Act.
  • Ukuguqula ukwahlulela okungalawuleki: Isichibiyeli seshumi elinesithathu ngaphandle kweseshumi nanhlanu sokusebenza ejele, iSichibiyelo seSichibiyelo seNguqulo sesishiyagalombili sokunqabela isijeziso sonya nesingavamile, kanye nokuvikelwa kweSichibiyelo sesine ekuphenyeni okungenangqondo konke ukuhlangana kobandlululo lobuhlanga nezimiso zobulungisa zomthetho.
  • Amalungelo asusiwe: ISichibiyelo seshumi nane sobuNgangameli buka-Claus eye yabekelwa inselele yilabo abafuna ukuqeda ubuzibulo bezingane zabafuduki abangabhalwanga, nakuba izazi ezingokomthetho zivumelana ngokubanzi ukuthi lo mbhalo usebenza kubo bonke abantu abazalwe e-United States kungakhathaliseki isikhundla sobuzali.

Isiphetho: Umsebenzi Ongachithwa Wamalungelo Omphakathi Omthetho - sisekelo

Izinguquko zomthetho ngokomthetho eziye zaguqula amalungelo esizwe eMelika zimelela ezinye zempumelelo enzima kakhulu yesizwe engokomthetho. Kusukela ku-Bill of Rights kuya ku-Reconstructives kuya ekuvuselelweni kwenani lekhulu lamashumi amabili, ukubuyiselwa ngakunye kumelela ukunqoba okunzima kobulungisa nokulingana. Kodwa indaba ayiphelele. Igebe phakathi kwezithembiso zomthetho-sisekelo namaqiniso aphilayo liyaqhubeka − ngokungena kokuvota, ithuba lokuthola inzuzo, ukwahlulela kobugebengu, noma ukwamukelwa kwezenhlalo.

Izinguquko ngokwazo zinamandla njengesibopho sezakhamuzi nezinhlangano zokuziphoqelela. Njengoba ukuqamba kweNkantolo Ephakeme kushintshashintsha futhi kuphakama izinselele ezintsha, incazelo yalezi zinguquko iyaqhubeka iguqukela ngokuchaza nangokuqondisa. Ukuqonda umlando nokusebenza okuqhubekayo kwala malungiselelo omthetho-sisekelo kubalulekile kunoma ubani ohileleke ekulweleni amalungelo omphakathi namuhla. Lohambo luyaqhubeka, futhi izinguquko zihlala ziyisisekelo futhi zinxusa ukuba kuthathwe isibopho esiphelele.

Ukuze ufundeke ngokwengeziwe ekulungiseni izivumelwano zomthetho-mthetho okuxoxwe ngazo lapha, vakashela i Izinqolobane zezinqolobane zesizwe ekhasini lokulungisa umthetho-sisekelo kanye ne-[FLT]ACLU's imithombo yamaLungelo [[[[FLT:]]]. Ukungena jule kakhulu emfundweni weSikhawulo semithetho yokulungisa izigwegwegwe, kunikeza ukwaziswa okuqhubekayo emkhankanyeni wobuhlanga.