ISichibiyelo seshumi nane soMthetho-sisekelo we-United States, esagunyazwa ngo-1868, siyisisekelo somthetho wamalungelo abantu baseMelika. Amalungiselelo aso aye aguqula ubuhlobo phakathi kukahulumeni, izifunda, nezakhamuzi. Ayikho indawo eye yathinteka kakhulu kunemfundo yomphakathi, lapho isiqinisekiso sokuhlenga-hlengiswa sesivikelo esifanayo nenqubo efanele saba yindaba yokubekwa kwemithetho engokomthetho phakathi kwekhulu leminyaka. Ukuqonda iSiphendulo seshumi Nesine sibalulekile ekuqondeni isisekelo esingokomthetho sethuba lemfundo namalungelo omphakathi eMelika.

Ukulungisa kwamiswa phakathi nenkathi yokuvuselelwa kabusha kwesizwe ngemva kweMpi Yombango. Kwaklanyelwa ukugumbuqela isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme ku-Scott v. Sandford (1857], eyayithi ama-Afrikaan ayengezona izakhamuzi. Amalungiselelo ayinhloko okulungisa atholakala engxenyeni yayo yokuqala, emisa ubuzibulo futhi equkethe izigaba ezintathu: amalungelo noma i-Immunities Claus, i-Clausle, i-Gust Procestion, ne-Claus Ener. I-CrealClaus yenqabela noma isiphi isibalo sokuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla ngaphandle kwenqubo engokomthetho. Isivikelo sika-Claus u-Exmassian sidinga ukunikeza isivikelo esilinganayo bonke abantu ngaphansi komthetho wayo. I-ctal Claus ephethe amathuluzi angokomthetho kanye nelungelo lokulwa.

Isivikelo Esilinganayo Nethuba Lokufundisa

I-Uncimel Protection Claus ibiyilungiselelo elivame kakhulu lokubekwa phambili leSichibiyelo seshumi nane endabeni yemfundo. Siye sasetshenziselwa ukubekela inselele ukuhlukaniswa kwezinhlanga, ukuhlukaniswa kwezemfundo, nokuvunyelwa kwezimiso zesikole. Umbuzo oyinhloko kulezi zimo ukuthi isenzo sikahulumeni esiphatha abantu ngendlela ehlukile singathethelelwa yini ngenjongo yomphakathi engokomthetho. Izinkantolo zisebenzisa amazinga ahlukene okuhlola kuye ngohlelo oluhilelekile, ngokuhlelwa kwezinhlanga ngokwezingalo ezisekelwe ekubukelweni kokwahlulela.

Ukuqeda [[QET:0] I-Jere Ukuhlanganyelwa

Ukusetshenziswa okubaluleke kakhulu kwe-Uncincible Protection Claus ezikoleni kwafika Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo yaseTopeka (1954). Kulesi sinqumo savumelana, iNkantolo Ephakeme yathi ukuhlukaniswa kwezinhlanga kwabantwana ezikoleni zomphakathi kwakuphula iSivikeli sika-Claus. INkantolo yalahla imfundiso ehlukile kodwa elinganayo eyasungulwa [[FLT:] Plesby v. Ferguson (1996], ithola ukuthi izikole ezidukileyo zazingalingani ngoba zazenza izingane ezincane zibe nemizwana ephansi. Isinqumo sasiwukunqoba okuphawulekayo kwelungelo lokuzingahambisela abantu futhi isisekelo sezindawo zomphakathi eUnited States.

Nokho, ukusetshenziswa kwe Brown kwakungelula. [[FLT]] Brown II [ [1955], iNkantolo yayala ukuba ideseconux iqhubeke ngesivinini sakho konke, amazwi avunyelwe ukumelana nokulibala okukhulu. Izifunda zesikole eziningi eNingizimu zihileleke ekuphikiseni okukhulu, zivala izikole zomphakathi kunokuba zizenze zifake. Yathatha ukungenela kwezwe futhi yaqhubeka i-agoduza emacaleni anjengaye [[FLT:]] Cooper v. [195] [19] [19] [19] [i-19] Izikole zesikole eziningi] zise zisekhona ukugcinwa kwemvume. Ngisho-Amerikalm, izikole eziningi zaseMelika zihlala zikhona ngenxa yezimiso zokuzi, ukumiswa kwesithembiso se-'inqulv]

Ukusekela Isikole Nokulingana Kwengcebo

I-Umeal Protection Claus iye yancengwa futhi ukuze kuxoxwe i-Expand Council District yokwahlukanisa isikole. Ezizweni eziningi, izikole zomphakathi zixhaswe kakhulu ngentela yendawo, eyenza umehluko omkhulu ekusebenziseni imali phakathi kwezifunda ezicebile nezimpofu. San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez[[FLT] [1903]] [1903]), iNkantolo yeNkantolo ephakeme yanquma ukuthi imfundo ayiyona ilungelo eliyisisekelo ngaphansi kwe-U.S. Umthetho-Constitution (intelligency) naleyo exhasayo esekelwe ezintelanisweni zendawo ayizange iphule i-Actal Protection Clavice . Lesi sinqumo savala umnyango wezinkinga zikahulumeni ezikoleni zeze zezezezimali.

Ngemva Rodriguez, abaqondisi baphendukela ezinkantolo zikahulumeni nasemthetho-sigeqe wezwe ukuba baphikise ukuxhaswa kwezimali ngokungemthetho. Izinkantolo eziningi eziphezulu zikahulumeni ziye zathi imithetho ephakeme yezwe idinga ukusakazwa kwemithetho yemfundo ngokulinganayo, iholele ezinguqulweni ezinkulu emazweni anjenge New Jersey, Kentucky, neWashington. Lezinqumo ezisemgangathweni zivame ukuchaza izimiso ezilinganayo zokuvikela esifundazweni sabo siqu ngokwesilinganiso esikhulu kuneSiphendulo se-1449. Inkantolo ephakeme ichaza iNkathi yezemfundo. Ingxoxo eqhubekayo ngezemfundo yesikole ihlala ingenye yezindawo ezikhuthele kakhulu zemfundo yomthetho nenkambiso.

Isinyathelo Esiqinisayo Emfundweni Ephakeme

Enye ingxenye enkulu yeSichibiyelo seshumi nane seSichibiyelo sezeMpi Yeziphene yaba ukusebenzisa uhlanga emakholijini. Umbuzo oyinhloko uwukuthi izinqubo zokwamukelwa kohlanga eziklanyelwe ukukhuthaza izinhlobonhlobo ze-alcimetic Claus. Regents zeYunivesithi yaseCalifornia v. Bakke[[FLT] [1988]), iNkanto ePhakathi Ephakeme yakholelwa ukuthi nakuba izibalo zohlanga zazingavumelani, uhlanga lungasetshenziswa njengesici esici esisodwa phakathi kwezinqumo eziningi ekuvumeni ukuthi kutholakaleni kweqembu labafundi elinhlobo.

Emashumini eminyaka, iNkantolo yaqhubeka icwengisisa izinga elivunyelweyo lokuvuma okungaqondiwe kwezinhlanga. Grauter v. Bollinger [2003], iNkantolo yasekela iYunivesithi yaseMichigan Law School ukuvuma okusemthethweni, okubhekwa njengengxenye eyodwa ekubukezeni okungokomuntu ngamunye. Nokho, iNkantolo yabulala futhi iYunivesithi yaseMichigan's system, enikeza amaphuzu asekelwe emncintiswaneni ngendlela enzisayo. [FFFF:] [5], muva nje, [FLT]] ngokuphana, [empe, inikeza iziphetho zezindlela ezingaphezulu kakhulu] ze-Empepho. [[Foctive]

Inqubo Efanele Namalungelo Abafundi

I-Century Procession Claus yeSichibiyelo seshumi nane siye saba nethonya elikhulu emfundweni yomphakathi. Sivikela abafundi ekuthatheni isinyathelo sikahulumeni sokuzithandela futhi siqinisekisa ukuthi isikole sinezinqubo eziyisisekelo zokuqondisa. Ukusetshenziswa kwezimiso ezifanele ezikoleni kuye kwabangela ukuba kuphakame iqoqo elikhulu lomthetho elichaza amalungelo abafundi ababhekene nokuthunjwa, ukuxoshwa, nezinye izijeziso.

Inqubo Efanele Ekuyaleni Kwesikole

Ku uGos v. Lopez[FLT:] [1997], iNkantolo Ephakeme yathi abafundi basesikoleni banempahla engokomthetho nesithakazelo senkululeko emfundweni yabo. Ngakho - ke, izikole azikwazi ukumisa abafundi izinsuku ezingaphezu kweshumi ngaphandle kokubanikeza izinhlelo eziyisisekelo zokuvikela. INkantolo ifuna ukuba abafundi banikwe isaziso ngecala labo kanye nethuba lokuveza uhlangothi lwabo lwendaba ngaphambi kokuba bahlehlise. Lelicala lasungula ukuthi ngisho nasemongweni wesikoleni, uhulumeni kumelwe asebenze ngendlela efanelekile futhi anikeze ukuzwa okunengqondo ngaphambi kokuba aphule umuntu onesithakazelo esikhulu.

Izimiso ze zisebenza ku-'FLT's's' ezinhlabeni zesikole, futhi izinkantolo eziningi ziye zandisa izivikelo ezingokwesiko zokuxosha nokukhipha ezinye izinhlobo zomthetho. Izimfuneko eziqondile zenqubo ezifanele zihluka kuye ngobukhulu besijeziso. Ukunqanda isigwebo. Ukuxoxisana okufushane, ingxoxo yethukela nomfundi kungaba kwanele. Ukuxoshwa isikhathi eside, ukuzwa okwengeziwe okungokomthetho ngethuba lokubiza ofakazi nobufakazi obukhona kuyadingeka ngempela. Lezi zisivikelo ezingokomthetho ziqinisekisa ukuthi abafundi abajeziswanga ngokungafanele nokuthi abalawuli besikole basebenzisa igunya labo ngokufanele.

Isivikelo Sabafundi Abakhubazekile

I-The Batts Procession Claus ne-Act Protection Claus Protection Clause zihlangene zinikeza isisekelo somthetho ovikela abafundi ngokukhubazeka. I-Anters enemfundo yemfundo ekhubazekayo (I-IDEA) iqinisekisa ukuba izingane zifanelekele ukukhubazeka. I-IDEA inikeza isimiso esiqinile sokuvikela, kuhlanganise nelungelo lokulalela ngokungakhethi lapho abazali nezikole zingavumelani ngemfundo noma izinkonzo zengane.

Le nqubo efanele ivumela izinhlangothi zombili ukuba zinikeze ubufakazi, zimeme ofakazi, futhi ziphikisane ngecala lazo phambi kwesikhulu sokuzwa esizimele. Isimiso se-IDEA's sibonisa izindinganiso ezihlanganiswe eSichibiyelweni seshumi nane, siqinisekisa ukuthi izinqumo eziphathelene nokufundiswa kwezingane ngokukhubazeka zenziwa ngokungakhethi futhi ngokucabangela okufanele izidingo zomntwana ngamunye. Ukuhlangana komthetho-mthetho kazwelonke nezimiso ezifanele zomthetho-mthetho ngokomthetho kusungule indlela enamandla yokuvikela amalungelo abafundi abakhubazekileyo.

Ukumiswa Kwezincwadi Zamalungelo Abantu

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane siye saguqula futhi imfundo yaseMelika ngemfundiso ehlanganisayo. lemfundiso ithi i-Simemezelo seSikhawu seSichibiyelo seshumi nane senza amalungiselelo amaningi eSiphakamiso samalungelo abantu asebenze ezifundazweni. Ngenxa yalokho, abafundi ezikoleni zomphakathi bajabulela isivikelo seSichibiyelo Sokuqala, iSichibiyelo sesine, kanye namanye amalungiselelo omthetho, hhayi nje imingcele emandla kahulumeni.

Imfundiso yokufakwa kwayo iye yaba nethonya elikhulu embukisweni wabafundi. Tinker v. Des Moines Independent School School District [1969], iNkantolo yathi abafundi abawachithi amalungelo abo omthetho-sisekelo enkululeko yokukhuluma noma yokukhuluma esangoni lesikole. INkantolo yaqaphela ukuthi iSimemezelo sokuqala, sisebenza ezizweni ngeSimemezelo se-14, sivikela inkulumo yabafundi ngaphandle kokuba iphazamisele ngokwezinto ezibonakalayo noma ihlasele amalungelo abanye. Lokhu kusetshenziswa futhi kuthuthukisiwe ezimweni eziningi ezihilela amaphephandaba afundayo, inkulumo yezombangazwe, nenkulumo engokomfanekiso.

ISichibiyelo Sesine sokuvikela iSichibiyelo ekuphenyeni okungacabangeli nasekuqulekeni kuye kwasetshenziswa nasezikoleni ngokuncintiswano kwe-14th Refection. [FL:0] New Jersey v.T.L.O.[[FLL:1] [85], iNkantolo yathi izikhulu zesikole zingaphansi kweSimemezelo sesine kodwa eziphenywa ezikoleni zidinga ukunyuswa okunengqondo kuphela, hhayi imbangela efunekayo yokufuna ukugcinwa komthetho. Lendinganiso ephansi ibonisa izidingo eziyingqayizivele zendawo ezungezile yesikole kuyilapho isanikeza isivikelo somthetho obalulekile kubafundi. Ukufakwa kwalamalungelo ayisisekelo esikoleni kusenzeka cishe zonke izici zolwazi.

Izisekelo Zamalungelo Omphakathi Ezibanzi

Ngaphandle komongo wemfundo oqondile, iSichibiyelo seshumi nane sinikeza isisekelo somthetho-mthetho esisekelwe ekwakheni amalungelo abantu namuhla. Izimiso zaso ziye zadluliselwa ngomthetho kahulumeni nangencazelo yokwahlulela ukuze kuvikelwe abantu ngabanye ekucwaseni emsebenzini, ezindlini, nasezindaweni zomphakathi. Isiqinisekiso se-ampement sesivikelo esifanayo nenqubo efanele siyisisekelo somthetho wamalungelo omphakathi waseMelika owenziwe kuso.

Isihloko IX Nobandlululo Olusekelwe Kwobulili

Congress wamisa i-Title IX yeSichibiyelo semfundo sango-1971 ngaphansi kwegunya laso lokusebenzisa izinombolo, kodwa lo mthetho uhlangene kakhulu nezimiso zeSichibiyelo seshumi nane. Isihloko i-IX sivimbela ukucwaswa okusekelwe ebulilini kunoma yisiphi isimiso semfundo noma umsebenzi othola usizo lwezimali zikahulumeni. Lo mthetho uye waba umshayeli oyinhloko wokukhula kwamantombazane nabesifazane ekuhlanganyeleni ezinkundleni zemidlalo futhi uye waba yinqubo eyinhloko yokusingatha ukuhlukunyezwa ngokobulili nokuhlaselwa ezikoleni naseyunivesithi.

I-Umeal Protection Claus ngokwayo ivimbela futhi ukucwaswa kwezingane zomphakathi ngokwezikole. Nakuba indinganiso yokubukezwa kwezindawo ezisekelwe ebulilini ingaqinile njengendinganiso yezindawo ezisekelwe ezinhlanga, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yakholelwa ukuthi ukuhlelwa kwezimiso ezisekelwe ebulilini kumelwe kuhlobene kakhulu nesithakazelo sikahulumeni esibalulekile. Ngaphansi kwalendinganiso, izinkantolo ziye zaqeda imithetho evimbela abafundi ezimisweni noma emathubeni asekelwe emithethweni evamile ngokuphathelene nemisebenzi yobufana besilisa, ukulingana okuqhubekayo kwemfundo.

Ukuvikela Abangahlali

Plyler v. Doe (19982]), iNkantolo Ephakeme yasebenzisa i-Uncimel Protection Clause ukuze ishaye umthetho weTexas owawugodlela izimali zemfundo yezingane ezingalaliswanga ngokomthetho eUnited States. INkantolo yasekela ukuthi izingane azinakwenqatshelwa imfundo yomphakathi ngenxa nje yesimo sazo sokufuduka. Inkantolo yagcizelela ukuthi ukuncishwa kwemfundo kuyoba nethonya elibhubhisayo kulezi zingane nasemphakathini, isebenzise izinga elikhudlwanayo lokuhlola umthetho waseTexas.

Isinqumo Plyler sisalokhu siyisibonelo esibucayi samalungelo emikhaya yabafuduki. Siyaqaphela ukuthi imfundo iwumsebenzi obalulekile wezwe nokuthi ukunqabela izingane ukufinyelela imfundo esekelwe esimweni sazo sokufuduka kungenza ukuba isigaba esiphansi kakhulu. Icala liyisibonelo esinamandla se-Ecult Protection Claus esetshenziswayo ukuvikela iqembu elisengozini kwisenzo sombuso wobushiqela. Cornell Law School’s Legal Instruction Institute inikeza umbono obanzi wendaba kaPlyler kanye nokusebenza kwalo okuqhubekayo.

I - LGBTQ+ Amalungelo Nokuqonda Kwanamuhla Ubulili

Eminyakeni yamuva nje, incazelo yobandlululo lobulili ngaphansi kwe-Exct Claus Protection ne-Title IX iye yakhuliswa kakhulu. Bostock v. Clayton County [20] [20], iNkantolo Ephakeme yakholelwa ukuthi ukucwaswa ngesisekelo sokubonisa ubulili noma isimo sokuguqula isimo socansi kuluhlobo oluthile lobandlululo lobulili ngaphansi kweSihloko-Sithi VII somthetho we-Poligin Rights Act. Nakuba [[FLT:] [FLT]] Bosstock wakhuluma ngomsebenzi, izinkantolo eziphansi noMnyango wemfundo iye yasebenzisa indlela yayo yokucabanga ezimweni zemfundo ngaphansi kwesihloko IX.

Lencazelo iye yaholela ezivikelweni ezinkulu zeLGBTQ+ abafundi, beqinisekisa ukuthi bavikelekile ekuhlukunyezweni nasekucwaseni ezikoleni. Ukuchazwa okuqhubekayo kweSichibiyelo seshumi nane kulendawo kungenye yezici ezinamandla neziphikiswana kakhulu zomthetho wamalungelo omphakathi, nezinkantolo eziqhubeka zichaza izinga lesivikelo sokukhuliswa ngokobulili nobulili obubonisa ubulili ngokwemfundo yomphakathi.

Ukulandela Iziqondiso Zesikhathi Esizayo

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane siseyincwadi ephilayo enenjongo eqhubeke iguqula izinselele ezintsha. Ekhulwini lama-21, izinkantolo zisebenzisa izimiso zazo emibuzweni emisha ehlanganisa ukukhetha isikole, inkulumo, nesiyalo ku-inthanethi. Imibuzo eyisisekelo yokulunga, ukulingana, namalungelo ashukumisa ukulungisa isakhiwo somthetho ibalulekile namuhla njengango-1868.

Izinhlelo Zokukhetha Isikole Nezokubuka Imali

Izinhlelo zesikole ezikhethwayo, kuhlanganise nezinhlelo zokuqinisekisa ukuthi izimali zomphakathi zivunyelwe ukusetshenziswa ezikoleni ezizimele, ziphakamisa imibuzo ngaphansi kwe-Unimeal Protection Claus kanye no-Claus. Abasekeli baphikisa ngokuthi lezinhlelo zinika imikhaya amandla, ikakhulukazi lezo ezisezindaweni zesikole ezingaphumeleli. Abaphikisi baphikisa ukuthi bakhipha izimali ezikoleni zomphakathi futhi bangase babangele ukuba ikhethe ngezikole zomphakathi. Espinobv. Umnyango we-Noverance we-PROVET, iNkathi yeNkathi yeNkathi ye-Free Express Classive Claus, efakwe ku-Grandment, ifuna ukuba izikole zeze izikole ezingokwenkolo ezivamile ezikhona. Lezi zimo zibonisa ukuhlangana okuqhubekayo phakathi kwezinhlelo ze-GreamPrence-ExPrection.

Inkulumo Yamanani Namalungelo Abafundi

I-Gast Process Claus Claus ibhekene novivinyo olusha enkathini yezokuxhumana. Uma nini isikole singayala umfundi ngenkulumo eyenziwe nge-campus ku-inthanethi? [[FL:0]] kuMahanoy Adelation School District v. B.L.[[FL:1] [2021], iNkantolo Ephakeme yanquma ukuthi isifunda sesikole asinakumjezisa umfundi ngezindawo ezinenhlamba zezenhlalakahle ezenziwe nge-campus, kodwa ingaliqedi ngokuphelele i-gudluza i- ova esikoleni ekhuluma nge-intanethi. INkantolo yaqaphela izinselele eziyingqayizivele ezivezwa ukuxhumana kwezimiso futhi yagcizelela ukubaluleka kokuvikela inkulumo yabafundi ngaphandle kwesikole.

Ukuxhumana phakathi kweSichibiyelo seshumi nane nobuchwepheshe bezobuchwepheshe kuyaqhubeka kushintshashintsha. Imibuzo ephathelene nokufihla izindaba zomuntu siqu zabafundi, ukulawulwa kwe - Internet nokufinyelela igunya lesikole ekuziphatheni kwe - Internet kuyodinga ukuba izinkantolo zisebenzise izimiso zomthetho - sisekelo eziyisisekelo ezisekelwe emongweni omusha. Ukuvumelana kwe - ICS Procesme Claus ne - Exct Protect ne - Exct Protect Claus Protect Claus kubenza bakwazi ukuvumelana nalezi zinguquko kuyilapho ukulondoloza izibopho zabo eziyisisekelo kuhambisana nokulunga nokulingana.

Isiphetho

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane siyisisekelo esibaluleke kakhulu esingokomthetho samalungelo omphakathi nemfundo eUnited States. Isiqinisekiso saso sesivikelo esifanayo siye sasetshenziselwa ukuqeda ukuhlukaniswa kwezizwe, ukubekela inselele ukuhlukana kwezimali nokukhuthaza ukuhlukahlukahluka. Isiqinisekiso saso senqubo efanelekile siye samisa ubulungisa obuyisisekelo esiyalweni sesikole futhi savikela amalungelo abafundi abakhubazekile. Ngokuhlanganisa imfundiso, siye sandisa isivikelo se-Bill of Rights ekilasini, siqinisekisa ukuthi abafundi bajabulela isivikelo somthetho - sisekelo ngisho nasemasangweni esikoleni.

Ukuqonda iSichibiyelo seshumi nane kubalulekile kubafundisi, abaphathi, abafundi, nezakhamuzi. Asisona nje isithembiso esingokomthetho kodwa isithembiso esiphilayo sokuba isakhamuzi esilinganayo nokuphathwa ngokulunga ngaphansi komthetho. Njengoba izikole zaseMelika zibhekene nezinselele ezintsha ezihlobene nobuchwepheshe, izinhlobonhlobo, kanye nokungalingani, izimiso zeSichibiyelo se 14ne ziyoqhubeka ziqondisa indlela eya esimisweni semfundo esilungile nesahlukene. Ukuchazwa okuqhubekayo kwale nqubo ebalulekile kuyowalungisa amalungelo namathuba abafundi abazokuza ngezizukulwane.