ISichibiyelo seshumi nane soMthetho-sisekelo we-United States singesinye sezisekelo ezinamandla kakhulu nezincintiswanayo ezingokomthetho emlandweni waseMelika. Saqiniswa ngo-1868 ngemva kweMpi Yombango, sahlongozwa ukuqinisekisa amalungelo ama-Afrika asanda kukhululeka, kodwa izigaba zayo [1] Isivikelo esilinganayo ne-Cear Procement Clausss (ngokukakhulukazi i-Centuct Procement ne-Century Claussss) kusukela ngaleso sikhathi zasetshenziselwa ukuvikela amalungelo amaningi omphakathi, kusukela esikoleni kuya ekwalingana. Ukuqonda lokhu akusona nje isifundo emlandweni; kubalulekile ukuqonda ukuthi isizwe siyaqhubeka kanjani nokulingana ngaphansi komthetho. Lesi sihloko sihlola isihluthulelo sokusungula, iziqondiso, izincazelo, izincazelo ezithatha ulwazi, nezingathwali ezihlala njalo phezu komciso.

Umlando Ogciniwe: Okwenza ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nane Sidingeke

Ukuqedwa kobugqila kweSichibiyelo seshumi nantathu ngo-1865 kwashiya izigidi zabantu ababeyizigqila zingaqiniseki ngokomthetho. Izifunda zaseNingizimu zamisa ngokushesha “Imithetho Emnyama” eyayiwavimbela kakhulu amalungelo abantu base-Afrika, ikwazi ukusungula isimiso esisha sokubuswa. Ngesikhathi esifanayo, uMthetho ka-1866 Kivil Rights Act wazama ukuqinisekisa ukuba nezakhamuzi nesivikelo esilinganayo, kodwa umthetho wayo wawungaqiniseki. UKhongolo, owawuholwa yiRepublic Republicans, waqaphela ukuthi ukuqedwa komthetho-mthetho kwakudingeka ukuvikela lezi sivikelo unomphela futhi ususa noma yimiphi imithetho yombuso eyayingavumelani.

Ngakho iSichibiyelo seshumi nane leminyaka sasiyindawo eyinhloko yokuvuselela. Sandford v inqumo e-1857, eyayinqabe ukuba abendlu yaseMelika. I-asethi bonke abantu abazelwe noma abadalwe e-United States bayizakhamuzi zesizwe kanye nezwe lapho behlala khona, ukunqanyulwa kwabangela ukumiswa kwemithetho enyanyekayo uDred Scott v. . [Isinqumo] [1857], esasingabenqaba ukuba abe yizakhamuzi base-Afrika. I-andendmenta yamisa amandla omthetho, ivumela umthetho ukuba ukuvumela ukuba umthetho ukwenze ilungiselelo oluneduke kakhulu phakathi kwemibuso nohulumeni.

Amalungiselelo Ayinhloko ESichibiyelo Seshumi Nane

ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nane sinezingxenye ezinhlanu, kodwa izigaba ezintathu ziye zaba nethonya elikhulu ekulinganiseni nasemalungelweni omphakathi.

Ukuba Izakhamuzi

Ingxenye 1 iqala ngokuthi: “Bonke abantu abazalwe noma abazalwa ngemvelo e-United States, futhi abangaphansi kwemingcele yayo, bayizakhamuzi zase-United States naseHulumeni lapho behlala khona.” Lesi sisho sasusa isimiso sokuthi izakhamuzi zesizwe zangaphambi kwesizwe. Sasungula ubuzibulo, okusho ukuthi noma yimuphi umntwana ozalwe eU.S. (ngaphandle kwemingcele yayo, njengabantwana bobumeli bamazwe angaphandle) uvele abe isakhamuzi sase-U.S.. Ilungiselelo liye laba isici esiphambili ezingxabeni zanamuhla zokufuduka, ikakhulukazi ngokuphathelene nabantwana abazalwa bengangeni ezindaweni ezihlala khona.[1]

Inqubo KaClaus Elindelekile

Le nkulumo yenqabela ukuthi kusuka ku- “noma yimuphi umuntu wokuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho.” Ekuqaleni lemfundiso ichazwa ukuba isetshenziswe kuphela ekulinganiseni (njengelungelo lokuhlola ngokufanele), iNkantolo Ephakeme kamuva yasungula imfundiso yenqubo edingayo [[[FLT:][FLD]]. Lemfundiso igcina ukuthi inkululeko ethile eyisisekelo (njengelungelo lokushada, ilungelo lokusebenzisa i-projectal commentation, nelokuvikela i-omictions, kanye ne-hofrective syst systructal syst system, noma ngabe akukho ukwenzipho oluthile lwe-procdeficturation kwenzekile. Izekwenzwe njengezeluleko lomshado.[FLT][3][3][3][5]

Isivikelo SikaClaus Esilinganayo

Mhlawumbe isisho esidume kakhulu sabameleli abalinganayo, siyayala: “Ayikho iNkantolo... ephika noma yimuphi umuntu ophakathi kwegunya layo isivikelo esifanayo semithetho.” Lelungiselelo liphoqelela isibopho ezindaweni ukuba abantu baphathe ngokulinganayo ngaphansi kwezimo ezifanayo. Nokho, iNkantolo Ephakeme iqaphele ukuthi akuyona yonke imigaba engavumelani. Kunalokho, iNkantolo isebenzisa amazinga ahlukene okuhlola kuye ngakuxhomeke eqeqeqeshiwe. Imibono yezinhlanga ingaphansi kwemithetho efuna ukucubukiswa [[[FLT:]] isisekelo sezenteko [[FLT:]], okusho ukuthi kumelwe bakhonze isithakazelo sikahulumeni futhi basebenze ngokungenamdlanga. [FOct:] ukunqoba okungalawuleki.[FFF]

Imfundiso Yokuvumelana: Indlela ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nane Esandisiwe Ngayo Amalungelo E - Federal

Enye yezindima ezibaluleke kakhulu, kodwa ezivame ukunganakwa, yeSichibiyelo seshumi nane i- ukuhlangana kweSigqi seGawulayo samalungelo amelene nezifundazwe. Ekuqaleni, iBill of Rights yasebenza kuhulumeni kazwelonke kuphela, ingamisa inkolo, noma iphike ukuqulwa kwejaji ngaphandle kokwephula umthetho-Mpatho-siseko. I-Msebenzi ka-Celasmente yeSimende se-1459th yashintsha kancane kancane kancane lokho. Ngezinhlokwana zezelo qala kuma-1920 (umz., [FLT:]]Gitlow v.[2] New, 1925, iNkanto ephakeme yayithi “ivikelwe yi-“evision" i-Ceast Ceausleans of Resources of Resolutions of Remorences. [FFodment:]],[Flightyoright:3], 1925], iNkadment

Maphakathi nekhulu lama-205, cishe wonke amalungiselelo eSigqebhezana samaLungelo asehlanganisiwe (inkululeko yokukhuluma, ukunyathelisa, inkolo, ukuhlangana, ilungelo lokuphatha izikhali (ku ] McDonald v. []), 2010), kanye nelungelo lokululeka, phakathi kwezinye. Lokhu kwandisa ngokuphawulekayo ukufinyelela isivikelo somthetho-sisekelo, kuqinisekisa ukuthi amalungelo esakhamuzi awahlukani kuye ngokuthi ahlala kuphi. Imfundiso ehlanganisayo ihlala iyinsika yenkululeko yomphakathi yanamuhla.

Ithonya Lamalungelo Omphakathi: Amacala Enkantolo Aphakeme Aphawula Izwe

I - Actal Protection Claus ne - Tar Process kuye kwaba yindawo yempi kwezinye zezinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme kunazo zonke emlandweni waseMelika. Ngezansi kunamacala amaningana avelele abonisa amandla alesi simiso okuguqula umphakathi.

Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

Lesi sinqumo savumelana sathi ubandlululo lobuhlanga ezikoleni zomphakathi lwaphula i-Exlimate Protection Claus. Ukushintsha imfundiso “ehlukene kodwa elinganayo” [ku- Plesty v. Ferguson [1896], iSikhulu seJaji u-Earl Warrenter sabhala ukuthi“izakhiwo zemfundo ezihlukene azilingani ngokwemvelo.” Brown ayiphelanga ukuhlukanisa ngesikhashana, kodwa yanikeza isisekelo esingokomthetho samalungelo omphakathi nomthetho olandelayo, njengoMthetho we-Chovern Act ka-649. Icala lihlala liyisibonelo esinamandla seze-Genethiwervement esetshenziswa ekuncipheni kwezwe.

Uthando Virginia (1967)

Umthetho kaVirginia owenqabela ukushada kwezinhlanga eziningi walahlwa njengokwephulwa kwazo zombili i-Aciment Protection Clauss ne-'Awrect Process' Clauss. INkantolo yathi umshado uyilungelo eliyisisekelo, futhi ukuhlelwa kwezinhlanga emithethweni yomshado kwakuyikhethelo olungathandekiyo. ukuvolova [ kuvame ukuvezwa ezicabeni zanamuhla zomshado ezilinganayo futhi kubonisa indlela iSichibiyelo seshumi nane esivikela ngayo ukukhetha komuntu siqu ekuphazanyisweni uhulumeni.

URade (1973)

Isebenzisa inqubo efanelekile, iNkantolo yaqaphela ilungelo lowesifazane lokukhetha ukukhipha isisu njengengxenye yenkululeko evikelwe yiSichibiyelo seshumi nane. Nakuba kamuva ilungiswe i-Parenthoous v. Casey[ futhi ekugcineni yalawula amaDobs v.Jack’s Health Organization [202] [202], iqokowe [[FLT:] ukuvikela nokuzimela] indima yomzimba. Isinqumo siye sabusa izimpikiswano ngokuthi i-Expressial Clastion ingaba isisekelo seze isisekelo seze, ukuvumisa inkantolo.

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

Esinqumweni esingu-5-4, iNkantolo Ephakeme yathi iSichibiyelo seshumi nane sifuna ukuba kuqashelwe imishado efanayo ehlangene nobulili eyenzeka kwezinye izifundazwe futhi inikeze imvume yomshado kumbhangqwana ofanayo ongowesilisayo. Zombili i-CANDRE Excendment Claus (ukuvikela ilungelo eliyisisekelo lokushada) kanye ne-Mongable Protection Protection Claus (ukucwasana ngokusekelwe ekuqondeni kobulili) isekela isinqumo. [[FLT:] [0] OFLTEF] wafell[[FL: 1]] iyisibonakaliso esicacile sendlela ulimi oluthiwe-andement engasetshenziswa ngayo ekuqondeni ukulingana. Ukuhlaziya okuningi kwecala, bheka [FLT:]

Izinselele Nezimpikiswano Ekusebenziseni ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nane

Naphezu kokuphumelela kwayo, iSichibiyelo Seshumi Nane sisewumbhalo ophikiswayo.

Isenzo Esiqinisayo

Nakuba i-Unicime Protection Claus ivimbela ubandlululo lobuhlanga, ayiphenduli ukuthi izimiso zohlanga eziklanyelwe ukuxazulula ukucwaswa kobandlululo lwesikhathi esidlule zivumelekile. Kusukela ngaleso sikhathi, iNkantolo iye yaqinisa kancane kancane izindinganiso, ifinyelela [ [1888], iNkantolo yathi amaqoqo ohlanga aye angahlangani nohlanga kodwa angasicimela kakhulu isenzo sobuhlanga sokuzivumela. Abagxeki be-i-i-flentings be-frected beyed intelligencer, ifaka izindinganiso izimpatho ze-activess.[[FLT][Fl:] [25]] [20], okuthiwa kakhulu isemdlalisweni semfundo ephakeme. Abagxeki-emvali be-flegist. I-flegistvolution inqabela noma i-type i-octivection ifuna ukuhlukaniswa kwezimiso ezisebenzayo.

Ukusakaza Amalungelo

Isithembiso sokulungisa isivikelo esifanayo asizange sidlule njalo ebhokisini le-collet. Ingxenye 2 yeSichibiyelo seshumi nane ekuqaleni ihlanganise nesijeziso sezindawo ezanqaba ukuvota izakhamuzi zabesilisa, kodwa lokhu kwashaywa indiva kwaze kwaba yilapho iSivumelwano sama - Coting Rights sikhokelwa ngo-1965. Namuhla, izimpikiswano zigxile emithethweni yokuvota, i-gerrymaning, ne-felony divrancencencence. INkantolo Ephakeme ivumele imithetho eminingi enjalo uma ingayikhombi ngokucacile i-divvota, kodwa iyaqhubeka ngaphansi kweSivikeli somthetho sobukhokhisi. [[FLT:] Brenan Center yeJac.[FLT] [FLD]]

Ukuba Izakhamuzi Ngokufanele

Izakhamuzi uClaus ziye zahlaselwa ngokwezombangazwe yilabo abaphikisa ngokuthi izingane zabafuduki abangashiwongo akumelwe zizitholele ukuba zibe yizakhamuzi zase-U.S. kodwa, umbhalo ocacile wenguquko ."“ Bonke abantu abazalwayo ... ngaphansi kwegunya layo”""[=baye bachazwa ukuthi bahlanganisa cishe bonke abazalwe eUnited States, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi abazali babo bahlala ezindaweni ezinjani. Noma imuphi umzamo wokushintsha lokhu ngomthetho noma ngezimiso zesikhundla sobukhulu ubungabhekana nezinselele zomthetho-mthetho-mthetho, njengoba iNkantolo Ephakeme ingakaze ilwe ngokuqondile nesimiso esimiswe [[FLD:0] United States v. Wong Brks[FLD:1] [18].

Isivikelo Esilinganayo Se - LGBTQ+ Abantu ngabanye

Nakuba [[FLT: 0] yawa [[FLT:] ithole ukulingana komshado], ezinye izindawo zihlala zingaxazululwa. Inkantolo ayinqumanga ukuthi isilinganiso sini sokuhlola okusebenza ekubukekeni kocansi noma ubulili. Bostock v. IClayton County[[[FLGGE:3] [2020]) yachaza iSihlomo VII samaLungelo e-Ovinic Act ukuze inqande ukucwaswa kwemibono esekelwe ekubuhlotsheni bobulili noma engobulilini, kodwa iNkantolo yenqaba ukunquma ukuthi isivikelo esilinganayo u-Clausle unikeza isivikelo esifanayo. Imithetho egunyaza phambili. Ukungena kwendlu yendlu, nokuzingela impilo. Ukuze ubone ukucubukisa, [FLF] [FF]

ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nane Ezimpini Ezingokomthetho Zangesikhathi Esidlule

Namuhla, iSichibiyelo seshumi nane seSichibiyelo sisemqoka emacaleni amaningi aphezulu. Lezi zihlanganisa izinselele zokuvimbela ukukhishwa kwezisu kusukela amaDobs (amakhambi athile aphikisa ukuthi i-Uncil Protection Claus ivikela ukukhishwa kwezisu ngenxa yokucwaswa okunjalo ngabesifazane), izimpikiswano ngokusetshenziswa kohlanga ekwamukeleni [FLT:] ezinqunywe kakade [[FLT] iziphazamiso ze-Faill Adgicts[, kanye nezenzakalo ezihilela amalungelo okuvela ekukhipheni izisu ngoba ukucwa kweziqu zabesifazane ukusebenzisa izitho zokugeza ezihambisana nezimpawu zabo zobulili.

Enye indawo eqalayo ukusebenzisa iSichibiyelo seshumi nane ukuze kucelwe inselele ukulinganisela kwezezokuxhumana. Abanye baphikisa ngokuthi “imicimbi yomphakathi” esungulwe yiziteshi zezokuxhumana zezokuxhumana kumelwe ihloniphe amalungelo enkululeko yokukhuluma abasebenzisi, kuyilapho abanye bephikisa ngokuthi amapulatifomu angabadlali abangaboshiwe iziNguqulo Zokuqala noma zeshumi nane. INkantolo Ephakeme njengamanje icabangela izimemezelo ezihilela imithetho kahulumeni evimbela iziteshi ezikuqukethe ukuba zingasuswa ngokombono. Lamacala angase ashintshe ngendlela ukulunga okusebenza ngayo esikwele somphakathi wezokuxhumana.

Ngaphezu kwalokho, i-Cedition of Imentation 3, esusa isikhundla noma ubani oye wathatha isinyathelo sokuvukela ngemva kokufunga ukusekela uMthetho-sisekelo, wathola ukunakwa okusha ngemva kokuhlasela kwe-Capitol yase-U.S. ezinye izinkantolo zesifundazwe nezikhulu ziye zacabangela ukuthi owayenguMongameli uDonald Trump akasekwi komiti yesikhathi esizayo yini engavunyelwe ngaphansi kwalelilungiselelo, iphakamisa imibuzo engase ixazululwe yiNkantolo Ephakeme. Lombhalo, osekuyisikhathi eside uphelile, ubonisa ukuthi umsebenzi oqhubekayo we-amperement.

Isiphetho: Ifa Eliphilayo LeSichibiyelo Seshumi Nane

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane asiyona into esele ekhona enkathini yokuvuselelwa kwenkathi. Liyithuluzi elinamandla elingokomthetho abahluleli, abamisi-mthetho, nabashisekeli abaye basebenzisa ukwandisa imingcele yenkululeko nokulingana iminyaka engaphezu kwengu-150. Ukusuka ekuqinisekiseni ukuba izakhamuzi zezigqila zangaphambili, ukuqeda imishado, ukugunyaza ukushada okufanayo, ukuhlanganisa izigijimi zalo ezichazwe ngokusemthethweni futhi zichazwe kabusha ngokushintsha kwezenhlalo. Nokho ukuqedwa kokuhlelwa kwenkululeko emphakathini nakushintsheni kwenkululeko. Kodwa futhi kubangela ukuhlukana okukhulu ngenxa yenhloso yakuqala, incazelo engokombhalo, nendima efanele yezigqila. Njengoba kuphakama amalungelo amashabhulo-gedia, ukuvela, ukuvela, ukuvela, ukuvota, ukukhishelwa kwezentenga okungokomthetho ohlukene nokushintsha inqubo yolwazi.

ukuze uqhubeke ufunda, hlola I-Cornell Information’s Imentation ye-14 kanye ne- uMthetho-sisekelo wesizwe weSiko loMthetho wezwe [.