Isingeniso: Idwala Lombuso WaseMelika

Isimiso sokuhlola nokulinganisela asiyona nje inkolelo-lwazi yezombangazwe; iyisimiso sokusebenza sikahulumeni wase-United States. Siklanyelwe ukuvimbela ukufakwa kwamandla kunoma iyiphi into eyodwa, lesisimiso siphoqa i-pagion, isikhulu, namagatsha okwahlulela ukuba ahlanganyele igunya futhi avimbele elinye. Ngaphandle kokuhlola nokulinganisela, isimo sentando yeningi yaseMelika singawohloka sibe yizikhundla zobushiqela noma isiphithiphithiphithiphithi. Ukuqonda ukuthi lesimiso sisebenza kanjani kubaluleke kusenzeka kumninindawo ngayinye, njengoba sithinta ngokuqondile indlela imithetho enziwa ngayo, ephoqelelwe, elawulwa ngayo, futhi ichazwa ngayo. Lokhu kuhlola okunwebe kungenakho ezimpandeni ezingokomlando, okwenziwe ngomayela, izinselele, izinselele zanamuhla, futhi ukubaluleka okuhlala kunezilinganiso zeze ze-aceccondsss ekhulwini lama-21.

Abakhi boMthetho-sisekelo, bedweba emakhulwini amaningi eminyaka emibono yezombangazwe, badala uhulumeni lapho ukufisa ukuvelela kungaqeda khona isifiso sokuvelela. Njengoba uJames Madison abhala ku- Federalist No. 51, "Ukuba abantu babeyizingelosi, bekungekho uhulumeni odingekile" Isimiso sokuhlola nokulinganisela siyinqubo esebenzayo evimbela abaholi abangabantu abadukelayo futhi ivikele inkululeko yomuntu siqu.

Isisekelo Somlando: Ukusuka ERoma Yasendulo Kuya Ekukhanyiselweni

Umqondo wokwahlukanisa amandla ezombangazwe ukuze kuvinjelwe uhulumeni wezwe unezimpande ezijulile. IRiphabliki yamaRoma yaveza umthetho-sisekelo oxubene nama-consul, i-senate, nemihlangano ethandwayo, ngayinye ihlola eminye. Nokho, ithonya eliqondiswe kakhulu kwabasunguli baseMelika kwakuyisazi sefilosofi esingumFulentshi uMontesquieu, esisebenza uMoya woMthetho [ waphikisa ngokuthi inkululeko idinga ukuhlukanisa i-propatialgin, isikhulu, nemisebenzi yokwahlulela. Waxwayisa, "Lapho amandla omthetho nezimiso zezindawo zihlangene kumuntu ofanayo noma emzimbeni, ngeke ikhululwe."

UJohn Locke wanikela futhi ngokuphawulekayo, esekela ukuhlukaniswa kwemibuso phakathi kwesishaya-mthetho nesikhulu, nakuba ayethatha i-jadiary. Abasunguli baseMelika bahlanganisa lemibono nokuhlangenwe nakho kwabo siqu komlando wamakoloni aseBrithani kanye nezifundo zomlando waseBrithani (kuhlanganise iMagna Carta (1215) neManglay of Rights (1689).

UMhlangano Womthetho - sisekelo Namaphepha Abahleli

Ku-Constitution of the Constitution ka-1787, izihambeli zaphikisana kakhulu ngokuthi zingalimelela kanjani i-frigian Plan ne-New Jersey Plan imele imibono encintisanayo. Ukwephula umthetho ekugcineni kwadala isishaya-mthetho se-bidamaral, umphathi oyedwa, nesikhulu esizimele. u-Alexander Hamilton, uJames Madison, noJohn Jay bavikela lesi sakhiwo i-Federalist Papers[[, ikakhulukazi u-No. 47, 47, 48, no-1051, u-Madison wachaza ukuthi ukuhlanganiswa kwemibuso ezandleni ezifanayo "kungachazwa ngokufanelekile incazelo yayo kanye yobushiqela."

Isimiso abasiklama kwakungekona ukuhlukanisa okuphelele kwemibuso kodwa ukwahlukana okulinganiselwe negunya elilalene. Igatsha ngalinye linendlela yokumelana nokugqekeza kwabanye. Ngokwesibonelo, umongameli angawukhipha umthetho, kodwa uKhongolo-mthetho ungawuqeda lowo mthetho. INkantolo Ephakeme ingamemezela imithetho engekho ngokwemithetho, kodwa umongameli umisa amajaji angaphansi kokuqinisekiswa kweSigebe.

Amagatsha Amathathu: Amandla Nemininingwane

Ukuze umuntu aqonde ukuthi amasheke nokulinganisela kusebenza kanjani, kumelwe aqale aqonde izindima ezihlukene namandla egatsha ngalinye, namathuluzi akhethekile anawo ukuze alinganisele amanye.

Igatsha Elingokomthetho (Isifunda - sisekelo)

ISiphakamiso I soMthetho-sisekelo sifaka wonke amandla omthetho eSishaya-mthetho eSishaya - mthetho, esihlanganisa iNdlu yabameleli neSigele. UKhongolo lwenza imithetho, lumemezela impi, luphakamisa futhi lubeke imali, lulawula inzuzo yezentengiselwano zamazwe ahlukene. Kodwa amandla alo ahlolwa isikhulu nesahluleli. Indikimba eyinhloko yeSishaya-Mkhandlu iphethe amanye amagatsha ihlanganisa:

  • Indlu ingazibeka izikhulu zikahulumeni (kuhlanganise umongameli nojaji) ngenxa "yobugebengu obukhulu kanye namaphutha." ISigele sibe sesiphatha icala futhi singasusa isikhulu ngevoti eyisithathu.
  • I-Advice kanye ne-connect: ISigele siqinisekisa ukumiswa komongameli (amalungu e-cabinet, amanxusa, amajaji kahulumeni) futhi sigunyaza izivumelwano ngevoti eyisithathu.
  • O ukushayeka i-Vto: UKhongolo-kanye lungadlula i-veto kamongameli ngenani eliphindwe kabili-ntathu emagumbini womabili.
  • amandla entengo:[ uKhongolo lulawula izindleko zikahulumeni futhi lungasusa izinyathelo zokuphatha noma izinhlangano zonke.
  • Ukuthatha indawo: Amakomiti angaphatha ukuqulwa kwamacala, amaphepha epeya nofakazi, futhi ahlole izenzo zezikhulu zegatsha.

Ngakolunye uhlangothi, umongameli angahlola iSishaya - mthetho ngomthetho ogunyaza umthetho, futhi abahluleli bangahlola iSishaya - mthetho ngokushaya imithetho njengengeyona engokomthetho.

Igatsha eliphethe (President)

Isigaba sezikhulu zezikhulu ze-operatio II kumongameli, ophoqelela imithetho kahulumeni, uyala impi, aqhube inkambiso yangaphandle, futhi amise izikhulu eziphezulu. Imibuso emikhulu kamongameli ihlolwa yiKhongolose nezinkantolo. Iziphetho zangaphakathi zomphathi zihlanganisa:

  • Veto Power: Umongameli angakwenqaba ukukhokha izindleko ezidluliswa yiSishaya-Mkhandlu, nakuba uMkhandlu ungawulawula.
  • A Power yokumisa: Umongameli umisa amajaji kahulumeni nezikhulu eziphethe, kodwa iSigele kumelwe sibaqinisekise.
  • Pradon Power: Umongameli anganikeza ukuxolelwa nokubuyiselwa kobugebengu bukahulumeni, ngaphandle kwalapho kungenamthetho. Lokhu kuyisheke ejajini, kodwa ngeke kulungise ukuqiniseka ngokungagunyazi.
  • Imiyalelo esebenzayo: Ngenkathi bengaqondile kuMthetho-sisekelo, amongameli basebenzisa iziyalo eziphetheyo ukuze baqondise izinhlangano zikahulumeni. Izinkantolo zingakhipha iziyalo ezidlula igunya lomthetho-mthetho noma lomthetho-sisekelo.

Igatsha lemithetho lihlola umphathi ngokufundisa, ukwengamela, nokulawula uhlelo lokuhlela. Ijaji lingamemezela izenzo zezikhulu ngokungakhethi, njengasendabeni yengqopha - mlando [FLT]] [[1] Marbury v. Madison[FLT] [183], eyamisa ukubukezwa komthetho ngezenzo zobuphathi.

Igatsha Lokwahlulela (Inkantolo Ephakeme Nezinkantolo Eziphansi)

ISiphakamiso III simisa igatsha lokwahlulela, elichaza imithetho futhi libukeze ubukho bawo. INkantolo Ephakeme iyinkantolo ephakeme kakhulu, futhi izinqumo zayo zibopha kuzo zonke izinkantolo eziphansi. Izikhali eziyinhloko zejaji zokuhlola amanye amagatsha yilezi:

  • Jodicial Review:[ Amandla okumemezela imithetho, iziyalezo eziphethe, noma izenzo zikahulumeni ezingavumelani nemithetho. Lokhu kwasungulwa kuyi Marbury v. Madison.
  • [ Incazelo ye-Stta translatey:[ Izinkantolo zinquma ukuthi imiphi imithetho eshoyo, ihlola ngokuphumelelayo ukuthi iSishaya-mthetho nomphathi wesikhulu baye beqa igunya labo.
  • [[Imvumulo engathiya:0] Impumuzo engathiya:[ Izinkantolo zingakhipha imiyalo yokunqanda izenzo zomphathi noma imithetho ukuba iphoqelelwe lapho amacala ekhona.

Ijaji lihlolwa amanye amagatsha: Ingqungquthela ingaphoqelela futhi isuse amajaji, ingaguqula ukubusa kwezinkantolo zikahulumeni (nakuba kungewona umbuso wokuqala weNkantolo ePhakeme), futhi ingaveza izinguquko zomthetho-mthetho ukuze iguqule izincazelo zokwahlulela. Umongameli umisa abahluleli, futhi inqubo yokumiswa iwukuhlolwa okukhulu ekuzimeleni kokwahlulela.

Indlela Okuvikelwa Ngayo Nokulinganisela Emkhubeni

Ukuqonda lezi zinqubo eziwusizo kusiza izakhamuzi ukuba zibone ukuthi le nqubo isebenza kanjani.

Umjikelezo We - Veto Nokuwulawula

Kusukela kuGeorge Washington, amongameli baye bakhipha izinkulungwane zezikweleti. Imali eshiywe yize idinga ukukhokha kakhulu. Ngokwesibonelo, uMongameli uFranklin Roosevelt wakhipha izindleko ezingu-635, ezingu-9 kuphela ezaziyi-sneon. UMongameli uBack Obama wakhipha izikweletu ezingu-12; uMkhandlu uDonald Trump wadelwa izikwele eziyishumi; uKhomishane wadlula enye (Isizwe Socience Act). I-veto iyi-chemie ye-presidentiyual, kodwa usongo lwamandla avame ukuhlehlela.

Ukuzithobisa Njengesikhali Somthetho - sisekelo

Ukuhlolwa komthetho kuyisivivinyo sokugcina sesikhulu se-clicary. Indlu iye yafunda komongameli abathathu: u-Andrew Johnson (1868), uBill Clinton (1998), noDonald Trump (i-tice, 2019 no-2021). Akukho noyedwa owalahlwa yiSigele, kodwa inqubo ngokwayo ingaguqula ukuziphatha okungokombangazwe. Umongameli uRichard Nixon uvele phambi kokuba athathe iziphakamiso nokuqiniseka. Abahluleli be-Frederal baye bakhishwa futhi basuswa kaningi, njengoMahluleli uWalter Nixon (1986). Igunya lokungahlolwangamthetho alivamile ukusetshenziswa, kodwa ukukhona kwayo kungavimbela ukuziphatha okubi.

Ukubukeza Kokwahlulela Kuyasebenza

Ukuhlola kokwahlulela mhlawumbe kuyi-eye-keyname ebaluleke kakhulu. INkantolo Ephakeme ishaye amakhulu emithetho kahulumeni nemithetho kazwelonke. Izibonelo eziphawulekayo zihlanganisa Planety v.[FLT] [1896]) ukusekela ukukhishwa kwecala (kamuva kujikijekile), Brown v. Board of Education [1954] [1954]] ukuqeda isikole, [[FLT:] i-Roev.[[FLT] v [ikt:]) ivikela amalungelo okukhishwa kwesisumo, futhi [FLT] i-Enterrencessssss wind i-Activemos.[iongnetic ) i-Active, noma i-odvision.

Inqubo yokunqumelana usuku nokuqinisekisa

Abameli bahluleli beNkantolo Ephakeme namajaji kahulumeni, kodwa iSigele kumelwe sibaqinisekise ngevoti elikhulu. Lokhu sekuye kwaba yisihluku kakhulu. Ngokwesibonelo, uMongameli u-Obama wabusa uMerrick Garland ngo-2016; iSigele esilawulwa yiRepublican Sezigebec senqaba ukuba siqulwe. UMongameli uTrump u-Trump umise amajaji amathathu (Neil Gorrath, Brett Kavanough, Amy Coney Barrett), ususa ukulinganisela kwenkantolo. Umongameli uJoe Biden wamisa uKetan Brown Jackson ngo-20222. Lenqubo iqinisekisa ukuthi akukho mongameli oyedwa ongamisa i-judiary ngempumelelo.

Izinselele Zanamuhla Nokugxeka

Nakuba ukuhlola nokulinganisela kubalulekile, akukhona ukuthi akunaphutha.

Ukuvaleka Kwemoto Nohulumeni

Uma amaqembu ahlukene elawula amagatsha ahlukene, i-gridlock ingakhubaza uhulumeni. Uhlelo lokuhlela i-bhange luye lwaholela ekuvinjelweni kukahulumeni kahulumeni kahulumeni, njengango-2013 no-2018-2019. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi ukuhlola okukhulu kuvimbela uhulumeni ukuba uthathe isinyathelo esiwujuqu. Abalweli baphendula ngokuthi i-griplock ingcono kunokubusa ngonya nokucindezela okuyekethiswayo. Nokho, ukunyuka kokuncishiswa kwe-tracel decation kuye kwenza kwaba nzima kakhulu, kuholela Izilinganiso zemvume ze-Contionegionments[[ ezivame ukunyuka kwemigqamile cishe kucishe ku-20%. Isimiso sincikelwe ngokuvumelana nomthetho.

Ukuvuleka Kwamandla Kamongameli

Ezinye izazi ziphikisa ngokuthi igatsha eliphethe liye lanqwabelana amandla angaphezu kwenhloso yabasunguli. Ukwanda kwezwe eliphethe, ukusetshenziswa kweziqondiso zezikhulu, nokuncika ku "izimemezelo" (lapho amongameli bememezela khona ngeke basebenzise izingxenye zomthetho) kuye kwahlola izinqumo zomthetho nomthetho. Ngokwesibonelo, uMongameli Obama's Defered Action for Childen Acts (DACA) kwakuyisenzo esiyinhloko iNkantolo Ephakeme eyayisisekela ngokwengxenye kodwa futhi ishiye ingenamandla. Ijaji eliye lahle lahlehlisa imingcele, njengoba inkantolo ivimbele ukuhamba kwenkosi uCalrump enzile ukuvinjekile kohlobo lwayo lokuqala nokusebenzisa kwakhe amandla aphuthuma.

I - Imperial Judiciary?

Ngokuphambene, abagxeki bakhathazekile ngokuthi ijaji selinamandla kakhulu. Ukuhlaziya kokwahlulela kungagumbuqela imithetho yedemokrasi. Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme Obergefell v. Hodges[[FLT] [202015] ukugunyaza umshado ofanayo ongowezenhlalo kunconywa abaningi kodwa ugxekwa ngokuthi uphathwe abanye. Impikiswano yokuthi izinkantolo kufanele zivimbele noma zenze isenzo sobuProputestism iyaqhubeka. Inqubo yokuqinisekisa iye yaba inqubo yomthetho wokulawula izinkantolo.

Ukulwela Ukusetshenziswa Kwezombangazwe

Inqubo yokungavumelani iye yakhula kakhulu. Abasekeli ababili bakaMongameli uTrump babecishe basondela emadilini, bengenakho ukusekela ukuqiniseka. Lokhu kuphakamisa imibuzo yokuthi ukunganaki kusasebenza yini njengokuhlolwa kokuziphatha okubi kakhulu noma sekuyisikhali senqubo yempi yezombangazwe. Abasunguli balindele ukuba kungasetshenziswa kakhulu futhi kube nokuvumelana okukhulu.

Umbono Oqhathaniswayo: Ukuhlola Nokulinganisela Emhlabeni Wonke

Isimiso sase-U.S. asisona sodwa isibonelo. Isimiso sombuso wentando yeningi sinezinqubo ezifanayo. Ngokwesibonelo, i-United Kingdom, incike kumthetho-sisekelo ongabhalwanga ohlanganisa imibuso (umphathi ohlala ePhalamende) kodwa ihlola ngokuhlola kokwahlulela nangeNdlu yoMbuso. Imithetho yeJalimane emisa inkantolo eqinile engakwazi ukushaya imithetho, nakuba ikhomba i-Boundag ne Bundesrat. IRepublic yeFind Republic inikeza umongameli amandla anele, kodwa i-Profeclate Constitution Council. Izimiso zobupostry Council zihlola imithetho efana ne-Brazil ne-Mexico efana ne-U.

Ukuqinisa Amasheke Nokulinganisela Kwekusasa

Isimiso sokuhlola nokulinganisela asiyona into esendaweni eyodwa; kumelwe ivikelwe futhi ilungiswe. Imfundo ye-COVIC ibalulekile: izakhamuzi eziqonda indlela uhulumeni esebenza ngayo zihloselwe kangcono ukuba zigcine abaholi benobuthathi. Ukuhlola imithombo yezindaba kusebenza njengendlela yokuhlola ngokwethukela, ukudalula. Izinhlangano zomphakathi, kusukela kwimingcele ye- yeZingamini ze-American Liberes Union[ ku- ku-Bnan Center yeJalate yeJaji [[FLT], i-ligate futhi isekela imikhawulo yemithetho esemthethweni. IziNguqulo zemithetho ephakeme yezomthetho, imithetho ecacile emiyalweni yezempatho, kanye nakuguqulweni kwezemali, kodwa noma yiluphi ushintsho lwezinga lokuvimbela ubukhazi bobushiqela.

Isiphetho: Ukudingeka Okuhlala Njalo Kwemingcele Yomthetho - sisekelo

Kunjengoba uJames Madison abhala, ubunzima obukhulu buwukwenza uhulumeni ulawule ababuswayo. Baqaphela ukuhluleka kwabantu nokungathembani kokubusa. Nakuba isimiso singathatha ijubane, sikhungatheze, futhi sikhungatheze, siye savimbela ukuvela kobushiqela emakhulwini amabili eminyaka. Njengoba uJames Madison abhala, ubunzima obukhulu buwukwenza uhulumeni akwazi ukulawula ababuswayo, bese ewuphoqelela ukuba uzilawule. Umsebenzi wesibili, uhulumeni uzilawula ngokwawo ngemishini nangesilinganiso sombuso wentando yeningi. Ingxenye yezentando yeningi idlalwe ngokuvota, ukuhlanganyela ekulandiseni umphakathi, nokuthatha icala lawo magatsha amathathu. Ukusinda kwenkululeko kuxhomeke kulokho kuqapha.

Ukuze ufunde ngokwengeziwe, hlola [[[QUL:0] Umthetho-sisekelo ongenzi lutho[FLT]] ovela eNational Constitution Center nase /FLT No.[FLT][FLT] kusuka ku-National Archivesss.