Kumaqhinga ayinkimbinkimbi kahulumeni waseMelika, ijaji likahulumeni linesikhundla esinamandla kakhulu kodwa esiphoqelelwe ngamabomu. Nakuba uMkhandlu ubhala imithetho futhi uMongameli ewaphoqelela, kuwela ezinkantolo zikahulumeni ukuchaza ukuthi imiphi leyomithetho esho ukuthini nokuthi inamathela kumthetho ophakeme yini kwamanye amagatsha. Ukuqonda amandla aqondile nayisisekelo salezinkantolo kubalulekile ekuqondeni indlela i-United States ezibusa ngayo. Azikho nje ukunquma okungalawuleki kwecala [[FLT:] [0] [amarbury v.[FLT], kwenza izinkantolo zezwe zibe yi-ehlolo elibalulekile ekuhloleni amanye amagatsha. Ukuqonda amandla aqondile kanye nemingcele yalezinkantolo kubalulekile ekuqondeni indlela i-United States ezibusa ngayo.

I - Constitution Foundation of Federal Judiciary

ISiphakamiso III soMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. simisa igatsha lokwahlulela likahulumeni kahulumeni wombuso. Ekuphumeni ngamabomu esimisweni saseBrithani, amaFramers akha ijaji elizimele lombuso nendlu yomthetho. Abahluleli bamaPreferel banikezwa isikhathi sokuphila esiqinile "emeleleni esihle" futhi iholo labo elingokomthetho lingeke lincipheke uma besahlala ehhovisi. Lemigoqo yokwakha yayiklanyelwe ukuvikela abahluleli ekuphindiseleni kwezombangazwe futhi iqinisekise ukuthi bangazenza izinqumo ezisekelwe ngokungakhethi emthethweni nasemaqini, ngaphandle kokwesaba ukuphindiselwa kweSishayamthetho noma uMongameli.

Ku u-Federal No.[FULT:1], u-Alexander Hamilton wachaza ngokudume kakhulu igatsha lejaji ngokuthi "igatsha eliyingozi" ngoba alinawo "inkambiso noma ihlulelo, kodwa limane linezahlulelo." uHamilton waphikisa ukuthi ijaji lalizoba nelungelo elincane lokulimaza amalungelo ezombangazwe oMthetho-sisekelo. Noma kunjalo, wabuye waphikisa ukuthi kwakuyilenkululeko eyavumela i-jajidiary ukuba isebenzise amandla anamandla okubukeza imithetho nezenzo zezikhulu zokungathathi ngokomthetho. Ngaphandle kwaleligunya. Ngaphandle kwaleligunya, umthetho-mthetho-mthetho uyoba yi-mthetho obengawawuyikho nje obekiwe, obekuhloselwe ukusikisela kwezezombangazwe abaningi. U-Foder Paptional uyaqhubeka eqonde kakhulu ekuqondeni kwesizathu seSigabeni se-IIII.

Umklamo Wobulungisa: Isimiso Esinezintambo Ezintathu

Isimiso senkantolo kahulumeni sakhiwe njengesigaba esicacile sesigaba sesonto, esiklanyelwe ukuqinisekisa ukubukezwa nokungaguquguquki okuphelele ekuchazeni umthetho kahulumeni. Sisebenza ngezinkantolo eziphethe imingcele ephansi, izinkantolo eziphakathi, futhi iNkantolo Ephakeme ephethe. Lesi sakhiwo siqinisekisa ukuthi amacala anqunywa ngokuhlelekile futhi amaphutha angalungiswa.

Izinkantolo Zesigodi ZaseU.S.: Izinga Lokuqulwa Kwecala

Kunezigodi zokwahlulela ezingu-94 zikahulumeni eUnited States namasimu ayo, ngayinye ineNkantolo Yesigodi yase-U.S. Lena amahhashi asebenzayo ejaji likahulumeni, lapho kuqulwa khona amacala, amajaji ahlala khona, futhi kunqunywe khona. Izinkantolo zesifunda zisingatha amacala kahulumeni, ukumangalela komphakathi, nokulawula imibandela lapho amaqembu evela ezindaweni ezihlukene. Umahluleli wesifunda oyedwa uqobo, uphethe, ahlulele ngezenzo, futhi anakekele izikhalo. Izinqumo zawo, ezihilela ukuthola amaqiniso nokusebenzisa umthetho, zingadluliswa njengendaba yezomthetho owendawo ehlukile.

Izinkantolo Zokudlulisa Amacala E - United States: Izinkantolo Zesifunda

Izinkantolo zesifunda eziyi-13 (izifunda zesifunda, D.C., ne-Federal Frank) zisebenza njengesehlo esiyinhloko ezinqumweni zenkantolo yesigodi. Abalihlabeli icala noma bazwe ubufakazi obusha. Kunalokho, amaqoqo amajaji amathathu ahlola umlando wokuqulwa kwecala ukuze athole ukuthi kwenzeka yini amaphutha angokomthetho agunyaza ukumiswa noma ukuqulwa okusha. Izinkantolo zesifunda zivame ukubizwa ngokuthi "izwi elingujuqu" lecala elikhulu likahulumeni, njengoba iNkanto ezwakala iqhelile iqhekelele isiqephu esincane sezicelo. D.C. izifunda zesifunda zinethonya kakhulu ngoba ziphethe umqulu omkhulu wezecala elihilela ukubuyiselwa komthetho nezomthetho. Uma izifunda ziphikisana nokuchazwa komthetho kazwelo, zikhamuka i-"Crit", njengoba ivame ukukhishwa yiNkade kakhulu enkantolo ephakeme.

INkantolo Ephakeme Yase - United States

Njengoba inkantolo yezindawo zokugcina ezizozihambela, iNkantolo Ephakeme ilalela izikhalo ezivela ezinkantolo zesifunda futhi inqume izinkantolo eziphakeme (ngemibuzo kahulumeni). Ilawula izikhumulo zayo siqu, inikeza i-certiorari ecishe ibe ngu-100-150 emacaleni angu-7 000 + icelwa ukuba ibukeze unyaka ngamunye. Isinqumo sayo sibekela isizwe sonke isibonelo esiqinile, ixazulule izinkantolo eziphansi izigaba ezihlukene. INkanto ePhakathi lingumchazi wokugcina wencazelo yoMthetho-sisekelo.

Izinkantolo Ezikhethekile

Ngaphandle kwezinkantolo zeSiphakamiso III, iSishaya-mthetho siye sasungula izinkantolo ezikhethekile ukuze sisingathe izindawo ezithile zomthetho. Lezi zihlanganisa iNkantolo Yentela yase-U.S. iNkantolo Yezikhalo Zezikhalo Ze-Veterans, neNkantolo Yezikhalo yase-U.S. Inkantolo ekhethekile ivumela ukuba izikhululo ezijulile ze-Atomper Formintelligence Surveillance Court (FASC), esebenza ngokuyimfihlo ukubukeza izicelo zikahulumeni zokuhlola izicelo zezentetheleyo ezinkantolo zesizwe. Lezinkantolo ezikhethekile zivumela ukuba kube nobuchwepheshe obujulileyo kodwa ziphakamise imibuzo ekhethekile ngokukhanya nangokulandisa. Zisingatha imiquluko yecala efuna ukunqotshwa kwezinkantolo ezivamile.

Imingcele Emangalelwe: Lokho Izinkantolo Ezihlangene Ezingakuzwa Nalokho Ezingenakukuzwa

Igunya lezinkantolo zikahulumeni alilinganiselwe. Ukubusa kwazo kuchazwa futhi kuboshelwe ngokucophelela ngoMthetho-sisekelo nezimiso zikahulumeni. Inkantolo kahulumeni ayinakumane izwe noma iliphi icala elithola ukuthakazelisa; kumelwe ukuba inemvume eqondile yegunya. Lemingcele iyisisekelo sesimiso sikahulumeni olinganiselwe.

Umbuzo Kazwelonke Nombono Ohlukahlukene

Izinkantolo zikaFederal zinegunya lokuqala emacaleni "ekuthatheni ngaphansi kwaloMthetho-sisekelo, iMiyalo yase-United States, neMiyalo eyenziwayo" Lokhu kwaziwa njengegunya lombuzo kahulumeni. Zizwa namacala phakathi kwezakhamuzi zezifunda ezihlukene lapho imali ephikisanayo ingaphezu kuka $75 000 (R1,5 000), eyaziwa njengegunya lokulawula. Lokhu kuqinisekisa ukungathathi hlangothi kwamaqembu angaphandle kwesifundazwe, kuvimbela ubandlululo olungase lube khona enkantolo yendawo lapho iqembu elilodwa liyintando kakhulu khona.

Izimfundiso Ezinengqondo

Isilinganiso esibucayi emandleni okwahlulela kahulumeni siyimfuneko yokuthi amacala kumelwe abe "alungile" leligama lesambulela lihlanganisa izimfundiso eziningana ezihlukene ezivimbela izinkantolo ekukhipheni imibono ephikisayo noma ukuphazamisa ezindabeni ezishiyelwe emagatsheni ezombangazwe kangcono.

  • Ukuma: I-paltiff kumelwe ukuba yaphathwa ukhonkolo, ukulimala okuthile okungokoqobo noma okuseduze, hhayi okuqagelwe noma okungacatshangelwa. Ukulimala kumelwe kulandelelwe kahle ukuziphatha kommangalelwa futhi ngokunokwenzeka kubuyiselwe ngesinqumo esihle senkantolo.
  • [[UMTL:0] Ukuzilimaza: Ukulimala kumelwe ukuba kwenzekile noma kusondele ngokushesha; inkantolo ayinakulawula ekulimaleni okungacatshangelwe okungasoze kwenzeke.
  • Ukungavumelani: Impikiswano kumele ibe "ukuphila" kuyo yonke inqubo yokuphenya. Uma indaba ixazululiwe noma izimo zishintsha ukuze inkantolo ingabe isakwazi ukunikeza usizo oluphumelelayo, icala liyaphela futhi liyasuswa.
  • Isiqinisekiso seMiyalo ye-Advisory: izinkantolo zeFederal zinganquma kuphela amacala angempela nezimpikiswano. Azikwazi ukunikeza izincwadi zombono noma izimemezelo ngemibuzo ecatshangelwayo engokomthetho. Lokhu kuphoqelela ukuba ijaji lisebenze phakathi komkhakha wempikiswano engokoqobo, eqinisekile.

Imfundiso Yezombangazwe Yombuzo

Kwesinye isenzo sokuzinqanda, izinkantolo zikahulumeni ziye zasungula imfundiso yezombangazwe. Lemfundiso isekela ukuthi ezinye izimpikiswano ziboshelwe ngokwemithetho-mthetho emagatsheni ezombangazwe (Conrer noma uMongameli) futhi ngenxa yalokho azinakulunga. Izibonelo zihlanganisa izinselele zokuziphatha kwemithetho yangaphandle, ukuvinjelwa komthetho-sisekelo, ukumiswa kwemiyalo, futhi, ngaphansi kwemibono ethile, ukugcinwa kwemithetho-mthetho-mthetho-sisekelo. Icala eliyingqophazamiso Baker v. Carr [1962])) yasungula ukuhlola kwanamuhla kokuveza umbuzo wezombangazwe, igxile ukuthi kukhona yini "ukuzinikela komthetho ngokomthetho wezomthetho wesigeqeqe."

Amandla Okubukeza Kokwahlulela Ayasebenza

Amandla okuhlola kokwahlulela ayisisekelo segunya lejaji likahulumeni. Ivumela izinkantolo ukuba ziqede izenzo zeSishaya-mthetho, zikaMongameli, nohulumeni bakahulumeni abaphula uMthetho-sisekelo. Lamandla asetshenziswayo kuzo zonke izimo ezifuna inkantolo ukuba ichaze umthetho-mthetho noma umthetho kahulumeni.

Ukubukeza Imithetho Kahulumeni

Kusukela ku Marbury kuze kube manje, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yabulala amakhulukhulu kahulumeni, umbuso, nemithetho yendawo. Lomandla aqinisekisa ukuthi iziphathi zemithetho azikwazi ukuwanyathela amalungelo omthetho. [[[FLT:]] Brown v. Ibhodi lemfundo[[FLT:] [54] [1954]] [iNkathi], iNkanto eshaye isifundazwe isifundazwe esiphezulu, i-spointspectedssssss, ivimbela "isikontini elingana" yemfundiso ye [[FLT]].[FLT] V. [irightase Isigaba se-Intection of Indust.[Foctive] [5] [ix] [ixmalk]] [ixmal], i-Active Activesment of Actives travolustration of arcercertivement arti

Ukubukeza Izenzo Zokuqondisa

Izinkantolo zisebenza futhi njengesehlo esibucayi egatsheni eliphethe. Entsha i-Town Sheep & Tube Co. v. Sayer (1952), iNkantolo elinganisela uMongameli Truman izama ukuthatha izigayo zensimbi phakathi neMpi yaseKorea, iqinisekisa ukuthi amandla kaMongameli akaphelele futhi kumelwe aphume emezweni noma eMthethweni weSikhundleni ngokwaso. Muva nje, izinkantolo zibukeze iziyalezo zezikhulu zokufuduka, imingcele yendawo ezungezile, nokulondeka kwesizwe, ngokuvamile kuvimbela izenzo ezidlula igunya lempi. Inkantolo Ephakeme isenza isinqumo . UNikon[FFFF:] [3] Umthetho ngokwawo ngokwawo] Umthetho uqobo. [197]

Ukuvikela Inkululeko Kamuntu Ngamunye

Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zivame ukuba isiphephelo sokugcina kubantu ababekela uhulumeni inselele. ISiphakamiso samaLungelo neSichibiyelo seshumi nane zinikezwa incazelo yazo esebenzayo ngencazelo yokwahlulela. Icala lezwe eliphawulekayo njenge- Gideon v. Wainright [ukukhomba] (ukukhomba), [iMardand] v. Arizona (ukuvikela ukumelana nozibuthe nokwethuthu), [[FLT] Ogbergefeb v. [umshado] [uhlu] [uhlu]] [uhlu]] [umthetho owehlolileyo] [umthetho]) ubonakalisa amandla ezinkantolo zomphakathi ukubuyisela i-globane.

Imingcele Engokweziqu Ephathelene Namandla Okwahlulela

Naphezu kwegunya lazo elikhulu, izinkantolo zikahulumeni zisebenza ngaphansi kwezithiyo ezinkulu ezizivimbela ekubeni ijaji lombuso.

Ukukhohlisa Kwesinkwenkwezi Nezici Eziyingozi

Isimiso se singavamile futhi sidinga ukuthethelela okukhethekile, njengokushintsha kwezimo ezingokoqobo noma ukuqaphela ukuthi isinqumo sangaphambili singalungile." Njengoba uMahluleli Brandeis ake aphawula, "ezintweni eziningi kubaluleke kakhulu ukuba umthetho osebenzayo womthetho uxazululwe kunokuba umiswe ngokulungile." Lemfundiso ilinganisela ukuthi ikhono lomahluleli lokubeka isimiso sakhe siqu.

Imingcele Yezindlela Zokwelapha

Izinkantolo ze-Federal zingakhipha izahlulelo, imiyalo, kodwa azinawo amandla okuzimela ukuze ziwasebenzise. Kumelwe zithembele egatsheni eliphetheyo ukuze zenze izinqumo zazo. Lokhu kuwumngcele ojulile egunyeni labo. Uma uMongameli noma umbusi kahulumeni ekhipha umthetho wenkantolo, inkantolo ikhetha ngokulinganiselwe ngaphandle kokudelela iqembu futhi icele i-U.S. Marshals Service (ingxenye yegatsha eliphethe) ukuba isebenze. Lokhu kuncike ku "igunya lenkemba" kuyisivivinyo esiyinhloko sejaji.

Ukuhlola Kwenhlangano Nesimiso Sezokuqondisa

UMthetho-sisekelo unikeza amathuluzi amaningi amagatsha ezombangazwe ukuba ahlole ijaji. UMkhandlu ungaguqula ukubusa kweNkantolo Ephakeme, ushintshe inani lamajaji enkantolo ethile, uhlongoze izinqumo zomthetho-mthetho ukuze ugumbuqele imithetho ethile, futhi ususe amajaji asemthethweni "ophakeme noMisdemears". UMongameli angahlola izinkantolo ngamandla okungagunyaza, aqinisekise ukuthi izahlulelo zigcwaliswa abantu abahlanganyela ifilosofi yakhe engokomthetho. Lokhu kuqinisekisa ukuthi ijaji alikwazi ukuhlukanisa ngokuphelele nentando yabantu, okungenani ngokusebenza isikhathi eside.

Iphuzu Lomuntu: Ukunqunywa Nokufundiswa Ifilosofi Yokwahlulela

Ngenxa yokuthi amajaji kahulumeni amiswe ukuze aphile, inqubo yokuwakhetha ingenye yezenzo eziwumphumela omkhulu kakhulu uMongameli angazenza. Iqinisekisa ukuthi ijaji liveza, ngokwezinga elithile, izindinganiso zezombangazwe zevoti, nakuba isikhathi siphansi kakhulu.

Inqubo yokubhala nokuqinisekisa

Abaholi bagqugquzelwa yiKomiti yeSigele yoMkhosi futhi kumelwe bawine ivoti eningi eSigebengwini esigcwele. Lenqubo iye yaqashelwa kakhulu emashumini eminyaka amuva, ngokuhlola okukhulu ifilosofi yokwahlulela kamine, imibhalo yakudala, nomsebenzi ongokomthetho. Izigxobo ziphakeme ngoba ukumiswa okukodwa kungahlela ukuqondisa komthetho wesizukulwane noma ngaphezulu. Lenqubo iyinhlolo ebucayi yentando yeningi emandleni ombuso wentando yeningi.

Ukuncintisana Nemibono Yokuchazwa

Abahluleli baletha amafilosofi ahlukene ebhentshini aklanywe ngendlela yokunquma izimpikiswano. [[FLT:] Abaqondisi bemithetho [[FLT:] bafuna ukuchaza uMthetho-sisekelo osekelwe encazelweni yawo yokuqala yomphakathi ngesikhathi ugunyaziwe. ababhali abachaza ukuthi bagxile kancane embhalweni ocacile womthetho, bethi abahluleli akumelwe bazame ukuzama ukuveza injongo yaphezulu yomthetho. Abanye bamukela [[FLT:] umthetho womthetho womthetho [[FLT:] wokungena, beveza ukuthi izimiso zomthetho zimelwe zishintshe ngezinguquko ezinkulu. Lokhu kukhipha amafilosofi kuholele ekuphumeni ezimweni ezihlukene, kusukela ekukhipheni amalungelo okukhishwa kwezikhali ekulawuleni.

Ukubaluleka Okuhlala Njalo Kwezinkantolo Zesizwe Emkhayeni Wanamuhla

Namuhla, izinkantolo zikahulumeni zisenkabeni yezimpikiswano ezinkulu zezwe eziphikisana kakhulu mayelana namalungelo okuvota nokukhipha isisu kuya emandleni aphethe, esimiso sendawo ezungezile, nakukhuseleko lwesizwe. Ukwanda kokubekwa kwenqubo yesinqumo kuye kwaholela ekwahlulelweni okuqashelwa abaningi njengempi yezombangazwe. Naphezu kwalezi zingcindezi, ukuthembeka nokuphumelela kwezinkantolo zikahulumeni kuxhomeke ekuqhubekeni kwazo kumthetho osemthethweni phezu kokukhetha abalawuli abahlukene. Izinkantolo nazo kumelwe zilwisane nezinselele zanamuhla zokungalindele. Izentengiselwano zezentengiselwano, ukudluliswa kwezokuxhumana, kanye nempi yembulunga yonke ephakamisa imibuzo engokomthetho edinga ukusetshenziswa kwazo emakhulwini eminyaka akudala kakhulu ewumthetho womthetho wonke. Ikhono lezwe le-judicatary ukuvumelana nomthetho womthetho omthetho omthetho obalulekile.

Amandla ezinkantolo zikahulumeni anzima kodwa ahlelwe kahle. Angashaya imithetho, amise izenzo zokuqondisa, futhi avikele amalungelo ayisisekelo. Nokho, ancike kakhulu kwamanye amagatsha nasekwethembeni komphakathi ukuze abophe iziqondiso zawo. Ukuqonda lokhu kulinganisela / amandla asabekayo okusho ukuthi umthetho uyini, kanye nemingcele yokwakha kanye nemithetho kulelogunya. / qh." Kubonisa ukuthi kungani izinkantolo zikahulumeni zibaluleke kakhulu ekulondolozeni irepublic esemthethweni yaseMelika. Kunjengoba uHamilton eqonda, umgcini wezithembiso zomthetho-mthetho, engasebenzi amandla esikhwama noma inkemba, kodwa amandla ahlala njalo ekwahlulelweni.