Impikiswano mayelana nendlela abahluleli abachaza ngayo uMthetho-sisekelo iye yaba yindaba eyinhloko enkulumweni engokomthetho yaseMelika. Imiqondo emibili evelele kulengxoxo ingubufandamentali ubuprostance kanye nobujudicia obungathathi-hlangothi [[. Ukuqonda ubuhlobo babo busiza ukucacisa izingxabano eziqhubekayo ekuchazeni umthetho-siseko. Nakuba zombili lezi zimo zefilosofi zifuna ukunqanda ukuqondisisa nokuqinisekisa izinqumo ezisemthethweni kunomthetho kunokukhetha komuntu siqu, ukuxhumana kwazo akuyona into elula noma engathi ikhona, kuhlola indlela imfundiso yokuqala ephikisana ngayo nokungathathiwe yiyo lapho uphenyo ngokomlando iveza inhloso yokwahlulela ngokungakhethi.

Ukuqonda Ukudalula

Ubufandamentali buyincazelo ehlangene mayelana nencazelo engokomthetho-sisekelo. Ekujuleni kwayo, inkolelo yokuqala isekela ukuthi incazelo yombhalo womthetho-sisekelo yayimiswe ngesikhathi sokubekwa kwayo. Lencazelo eqinile inegunya futhi kufanele icindezele abahluleli namuhla. Ifilosofi yavela kakhulu ekupheleni kwekhulu lamashumi amabili njengendlela yokusabela ekuthatheleni i-gastism yeWarren Court nezinqulu ezithathelwe phezulu zenkathi kaRoe. Wade.

Kukhona ukuhlukahluka okuningana kobuFourism, kodwa okubili okunethonya kakhulu yinhloso yokuqala kanye no [FLT] obala] incazelo yasekuqaleni[. Injongo yasekuqaleni ifuna ukuqonda ukuthi iziphi izifemu ngokwazo ezazikholelwa ukuthi zisho ukuthini uMthetho-sisekelo. Lendlela yasekelwa ngezibalo ezinjengo Attorney General Edwin Meese futhi, ngokwesimo esihluke kakhulu, nguMahluleli Robert Bork. Ngokwendlela yomphakathi, ibuza ukuthi umuntu onengqondo ngesikhathi se-ratzition wayeqonda ukuthi umbhalo usho ukuthini. Lenguquko yayaziwa kakhulu nguMahluleli u-Anton Sctalia futhi iye yaba yi-mfazwe kakhulu phakathi kwe-Arcles, kuhlanganise noMahlulelist Thomas no-Frence.

Abasekeli Abayinhloko Nezimpikiswano Zabo

IJaji uScalia laphikisa ngokuthi ubuJuda buwukuphela kwendlela engokomthetho yokuchaza ngoba ihlonipha inqubo yentando yeningi. Ngokunamathela encazelweni yokuqala, abahluleli bayakugwema ukubeka izindinganiso zabo siqu futhi kunalokho baphoqelele ukukhetha okwenziwa abantu ngabameleli babo abakhethiwe nangemihlangano ehlolwayo. Encwadini yakhe Matter of Postry, Scalia wabhala ukuthi ubuProfethist “buwukuphela kwento egcina uMthetho-sisekelo ungaba yincwadi ephilayo ebhekene nezimfuno zesizukulwane ngasinye."

Umahluleli Robert Bork, Ukuhlenga kweMelika , kwenza icala elifanayo, ukuphikisa ngokuthi noma yiyiphi indlela engeyoyakuqala ngokungenakugwenywa iholela amajaji ukuba athathe isihlalo. Umbono kaBork wokungathathi hlangothi wawuqinile: umahluleli kumelwe asebenzise ukuqonda kwasekuqaleni kungakhathaliseki ukuthi kuvumelana noma ukuphikisana nomphumela. Ukufunda ukubukezwa komsebenzi wethonya le Bork's.

Ukukhula Kwenkolelo Yokuqalwa Ezinkantolo

Ubufundisi basuka emfundisweni yezemfundo baya enkambisweni yokwahlulela phakathi nokuphathwa kukaReagan. Ukumiswa kukaScalia eNkantolo Ephakeme ngo-1986, kwalandelwa uThomas ngo-1995, kwanika ubuShona iphimbo eliqinile ebhentshini eliphakeme. Emashumini amathathu eminyaka adlule, ukucabanga kokuqala kuye kwavela ezicabeni ezivelele, kuhlanganise [ iDigality of Columbia v. Hella [FLD [FLT] [2008] [2008], lapho iNkampethelela yanga khona eqondeni yokuqala yeSiphendulo sesibili ukuba iqaphele ilungelo lomuntu lokuphatha izikhali. Muva nje, Isizwe saseNew York iRolfle & Polistsonson Association.[Bruen:] [FLT] [20]]

Inhloso Yokungathathi - hlangothi Kokwahlulela

Ukungathathi hlangothi kokwahlulela kuyisimiso esikhulu sokuthi ngaphambi kokuba kube khona ukuthatha umthetho. Ithi amajaji kufanele anqume amacala asekelwe ekungathathi hlangothini, abekwe ngaphambili ezindinganisweni zomthetho ezisemthethweni, zokuziphatha, noma uzwela lweqembu elithile.

Ukumiswa kwemithetho elawula ukungathathi hlangothi komthetho-mthetho kwavela kuProfesa Herbert Wechsler esihlokweni sakhe sika-1995 esithi “Iziphakamiso Zomthetho-mthetho Ezingathathi Nhlangothi.” Wechsler waphikisa ngokuthi iNkantolo Ephakeme kumelwe imise izinqumo zayo kulokhu kungenaluhlangothi” ezisebenza ngempela kuzo zonke izindaba ezifanayo, ngisho noma umphumela ungathandeki kwezombangazwe. Wagxeka izinqumo ezinjengo Brown v. Board yemfundo[ ngenxa yokuhluleka ukuchaza izimiso ezinjalo, nakuba ekugcineni ewusekele umphumela. Indaba ka-Schlerler yaveza amashumi eminyaka yenkulumo esho ukuthi kuyini umahluleli ukuba angathathi hlangothi.

Ukungathathi - hlangothi Njengempicabadala Ephathelene Nentando Yokwahlulela

Kubaningi abakholelwa ekuthatheni uhlangothi, ngokuyinhloko kuyisici esicindezelayo. Kudingeka ukuba amajaji ahlukanise imibono yawo siqu nomthetho. Lomqondo uhlanganisiwe esifungweni sokwahlulela, edingweni sokusola ubandlululo, nasemasikweni emibono ebhaliwe ethethelela imiphumela ngokubhekisele egunyeni elingokomthetho. Ukungathathi hlangothi akusho ukuthi umthetho ngokwawo awuthathi hlangothi, kodwa ukujezisa kungase kube yizehluleli, kodwa kunalokho kushiwo ukuthi ukusebenzisa komahluleli umthetho akunakhetheli.

Isikole senqubo engokomthetho, esihlangene noHenry Hart noAlbert Sacks, sagcizelela ukuthi umthetho uyibhizinisi elihlukanisayo futhi amajaji kufanele aqiqe ngesimiso. Baphikisa ngokuthi ijaji elingathathi hlangothi libalulekile ekulondolozeni ukuthembela komphakathi ezinkantolo. Uma abahluleli bebhekwa njengabadlali abanobuphekula, ukufaneleka kwaso sonke isimiso somthetho kuyasiqeda. Ukufunda okwengeziwe ngenqubo yesikole somthetho eHarvard Law Today.

Ukulungisa KwasebuJudeni Phakathi Kokukhulekela Kwakuqala Nokungathathi - hlangothi Kokwahlulela

Uma uqala ukubheka, ukuthatha indawo yenkolo nokungathathi hlangothi kokwahlulela kubonakala kuvumelana ngokwemvelo. Bobabili bagcizelela ukuthi amajaji akumelwe abeke izindinganiso zawo siqu. UbuScordinast buthi bunikeza indlela yokuchaza enenjongo − ngokubheka incazelo engokomlando − leyonto elinganiselayo ngokwahlulela. Uma indima yomahluleli imane iwukuthola lokho uMthetho-sisekelo owawukusho lapho ugunyaziwe, khona - ke izindinganiso zomuntu siqu azinandima. Yilokho kanye okushiwo nguScalia: “Ijaji elithanda imiphumela njalo elifinyelela kuyo lingumahluleli omubi”.

Abasunguli bemfundiso yokuqala bavame ukuveza indlela yabo njengewukuphela kwendlela yokufinyelela ukungathathi hlangothi. Ukuthatha izindlela zabangaveli phambili, baphikisa ngokuthi, bamema amajaji ukuba aphathe uMthetho-sisekelo njengesikwele esingekho lutho. Umsunguli womthetho-sisekelo ophilayo, okwisikhomba-msuka, akanakuba thathi-hlangothi ngoba indlela ngokwayo ixhomeke emibonweni yomahluleli ngokwayo ngalokho okubalulekile ngokuthi “ukuhle” ukubusa noma“ ukuhlanganisa” izindinganiso. Umthetho wakuqala, ngokuchaza incazelo esekelwe emlandweni omisiwe, ubonakala ususa isahlulelo.

Indlela Ukukholelwa Kuwekuqala Okuthi Ngaso Sonke Isikhathi Kufakazela Ukungathathi - hlangothi

Ukuqamba kwakuqala kusebenza ngezinqubo eziningana abasekeli baso abaphikisa ukuthi zikhuthaza ukungathathi - hlangothi:

  • Ikhambi lombhalo: incazelo yoMthetho-sisekelo yaxazululwa ekuhlobiseni. Abahluleli abayivuseleli; bayayisebenzisa.
  • Ubufakazi obungokwesivumo: Ukuchaza kucindezelwa izichazamazwi, izimpikiswano zokwahlukanisa, nezincwadi ezingokomthetho ezikhona ngesikhathi esisodwa. Umsebenzi womahluleli ungokomlando, awuvamile.
  • Umsebenzi we-transcubstrive:[ Imithetho yoqobo isebenza ezimweni ezibhekene namacala kungakhathaliseki ukuthi ziyini noma izimo zedili. Akukho thuba lozwela noma ubandlululo.
  • I-Rlute yomthetho:[ incazelo enqunyiwe ivumela izakhamuzi ukuba zazi lokho okufunwa umthetho. Lokhu kubikezela kuyisibonakaliso sokungathathi hlangothi.

Kubantu bokuqala, noma ikuphi ukwehluka kwencazelo yokuqala kuwukwehlukana nokungathathi hlangothi. IJaji uThomas uvame ukuveza lempikiswano ngokuphikisana, esola iningi ngokuthatha indawo yenkambiso yalo siqu yomthetho wokuqala womthetho-sisekelo. Obergefell v. Hodges [2015], uThomas wabhala ukuthi ukuqaphela kwabaningi ilungelo lomshado ofanayo akunasisekelo “emthethweni womthetho-sisekelo” nokuthi isinqumo sasibonisa imibono yeNkantolo siqu yokuziphatha kunokuba sibonise umthetho.

Izici Ezicindezelayo: Lapho Ukungathathi - hlangothi Kwakuqala Kuyinselele

Naphezu kokuhlelwa kwemibono, ukungathathi hlangothi komthetho kuvame ukungqubuzana. Inhloso yokungathathi hlangothi ifuna okukhulu: umahluleli kumelwe angakhethi, kodwa ukukholelwa ekudalweni ngokwako kungase kubangele ubandlululo noma ukungaqiniseki okululaza lowo mbono.

Ukunamathela Kobufakazi Obungokomlando

Ukungathathi-hlangothi kudinga ukuba kusetshenziswe umthetho njengoba kunjalo, hhayi njengoba umuntu engase afisa ukuba ube yikho. Kodwa ubufakazi obungokomlando buvame ukungaqondakali. Abacwaningi abahlukene bangafunda impikiswano efanayo futhi bafinyelele eziphethweni eziphikisanayo ngokuphathelene nalokho incazelo yokuqala yomphakathi yayiyikho. Ngokwesibonelo, izazi namajaji sekuyisikhathi eside bephikisana ngokuthi incazelo yokuqala yeSichibiyelo sesibili ivikela ilungelo lomuntu noma ilungelo elihlangene elihlangeneyo elihlangeneyo elihlangene nenkonzo yobubusosha. Iqiniso lokuthi iNkantolo Ephakeme ehlukaniswe ngo 5-4 isikisela ukuthi ukukholelwa ekudalweni kwakuqala ngokwako akuvezi izimpendulo ezikhethekile. Lapho ukuncintisana kuqala kuveza imiphumela, umahluleli kumelwe ukhethe phakathi nokulandisa komlando. Lokho kuvula isango kushiwo yisihloko esiyinhloko.

Inkinga Yamalungelo Angagunyazwanga

Ukuthathela phambili kulwisana namalungelo angashiwo ngokuqondile embhalweni. ISichibiyelweni seNinth sithi ukuhlelwa kwamalungelo athile “akunakuthathwa njengokuphika noma ukuhlukanisa abanye abantu.” Kodwa abasunguli bakuthola kunzima ukunikeza lokho okunciphiswe ngokomlando ngenxa yokuthi umlando awulingani. Umahluleli ozinikele ekungathathi hlangothini icala angathola ukuthi ilungelo , noma ukubuswa imfihlo, kusuka ekuzinzeni noma emzimbeni okusekelwe kakhulu emlandweni nasemkhubeni. Kodwa ukuqamba kokuqala kuvame ukugxeka izinsolo ezinjalo, okungaholela ekuncipheni amalungelo okungamelwa umahluleli okungaye kwahluleli okunga. Lokhu kungavela ekhanda [FLT:] umbango] u-Dobs. VF.[5] Inhlangano yezempilo [FF1] ngempela [FF1] ifuna ukuvinjelwe yisinqumo esivamile somthetho.[3][3]

Ukuqalwa Kwabantu Nokuziphilisa Kwabo

Enye ingxabano ibangelwa ukuthi incazelo yokuqala yakhiwa emphakathini owawucindezelwe kakhulu yizindinganiso zanamuhla. UMthetho-sisekelo ekuqaleni wawuvikela ubugqila, unqabela abesifazane ukuvota, futhi waphatha amadlana ezinhlanga njengezingaphansi kwabantu abaphelele. Umahluleli wakuqala oyisebenzisa ngokwethembeka leyo ncazelo kungase kudingeke ukuba asekele imiphumela engathi ingqapheli engathathi hlangothi engalungile. Ngokwesibonelo, uma icala eliphathelene nokuhlukaniswa kwezinhlanga lalethwa ngaphansi kwencazelo yokuqala yeSiphendulo seshumi nane, abanye abaqalayo baye baphikisa ukuthi abafaki mithetho yokukhokhi isikole esiqinile. Ngempela, iSivumelwane somthetho esahlongoze iSiphendulo seGawula seGawulayo saqala futhi saqala ukubheka ukuvinjelwa kwezelelwa kwesigaba sombuso we-Colimbia. Uma uma ijaji elizinikele ekungameleni kwezelele ekungathanye futhi nasenzweni kwesigaba sokuqala namuhla, futhi bengase bacabange ukuthi “ingenakuba khona ngempela ukuthi isilinganiso esingundawodwa. ”

Lenkinga iye yaholela abanye abakholelwa ekudalweni ukuba bathathe lokho okubizwa ngokuthi “umthetho-sisekelo wakudala ophila” noma“isandla esifile” amakhambi, lapho bephikisa khona ukuthi izimiso ezibanzi zoMthetho-sisekelo − njengokulingana − kufanele zisetshenziswe ezimweni zanamuhla. Kodwa lokhu kususa izingozi zokulahla incazelo yokuqala ngenxa yokungakhethi, kululaza ukugomela kokuthi ubuPhostoli buyindlela eyingqayizivele yokungathathi hlangothi.

Izimpikiswano Neziphakamiso Ezivela Ekuphishekeleni Imibono

Abagxeki, ikakhulukazi abasekela umthetho-sisekelo ophilayo nabaqondisi bezimiso zomthetho-mthetho, baphikisa ngokuthi ubuKhomanisi benkolo behluleka ukunikeza isithembiso sabo sokungathathi hlangothi. Baveza ukuthi amajaji ngokungenakugwenywa asebenzisa ukuhlakanipha ekukhetheni imithombo engokomlando efanelwe ukunconywa, ukuthi angalihlela kanjani isiko elihlobene, nokuthi yiliphi izinga lokulandelana. Ngokwesibonelo, uProfesa Jack Balkin waseYale Law School, uphikisa ngokuthi ubukhonzile buvumelana nemiphumela eqhubekayo uma umuntu emukela “isisekelo esiyisisekelo esinezimiso zomthetho sisekelo” esihlanganisa izimiso zomthetho wemvelo ezibanzi. Kodwa le nguqulo yokuqala ihluke kakhulu enguqulweni ehlonishwa nguScalia.

Enye i-critique ivela kubantu abakholelwa ngokomthetho abaphikisa ukuthi ukungathathi hlangothi ngokwako kuyinganekwane. Bagomela ngokuthi yonke incazelo ihilela ukukhetha okubalulekile nokuthi ukuchaza kuqala kumane kufihle labo abakhetha ngokufihla ukunganaki. Ngokwalombono, uqobo aluyona indlela ehlukile yokufinyelela ezimisweni ngokuvamile ezisekela izikhundla zezombangazwe ezingokwesiko. Ukuhlola kwe-Empipical kuye kwabonisa ukuthi abahluleli bokuqala bathambekele ekuvoteleni ngokulandela imibandela engokwesiko, nakuba ukuthathela i-corlective kungaphelele. [[FLT: 0]] A ukutadisha kumthetho we-Duke Journal uhlola izindlela zokuvota zezovota zezomthetho wokuqala.[[FLT]

Ukusabela Kwabakholelwa Kuyizazi Zemvelo

Abagxeki baphendula ngokuthi lokhu kugxeka kuhlanganisa indlela nemiphumela yayo. Baphikisa ngokuthi ukukholelwa kokuqala akuyona imiphumela; kusenqubweni. Uma incazelo yokuqala iholela ekubeni umahluleli angakuthandi, umahluleli kufanele akulandeli. Iqiniso lokuthi abaqali bakuqala ngezinye izikhathi baphikisana ukuthi ukubuza okungokomlando kunzima, hhayi ukuthi indlela inephutha. Ngaphezu kwalokho, baphikisa ukuthi ukuphila ngomthetho ngokomthetho kusengozini kakhulu yokucwaswa ngenxa yokuthi ayinayo i-ankile eqinile. Ngokombono wakuqala, ukuphikisana kobukho bakuqala akuyona into ewumbaxazulu kodwa yizi.

Ukuziphakamisa: Ukungathathi - hlangothi Ezinkantolo Zanamuhla

INkantolo yamanje ePhakeme kakhulu iyisici esiyinhloko seNkantolo yakuqala kakhulu. AmaJaji uThomas, u-Alito, uGormoth, Kavanaugh, noBarrett bonke banendlela yokucabanga eqinile evumelanayo namaqondo ahlukene. Kodwa izinqumo zeNkantolo ngezinye izikhathi zembula ukwaphuka okungaphakathi ekamu lokuqala. Bruen [[FLT: 1]] Bruen [[FLT] [[FLT]], iningi lasebenzisa uvivinyo oluqinile olungokomlando, kodwa uJastice Kavaugh wasikisela indlela evumelanayo evumelanayo evumelanayo evumelana kakhulu nemithetho. UJastier Barrett, phakathi nokugunyaza kwakhe, wabonisa ukuthi usathuthukisa imibono yakhe ngemibono yakhe engokokuqala, futhi ayenza ngezinye izikhathi isuka kwesibonelo esiqinile seScali.

Lezi zigaba ziqokomisa umzabalazo oqhubekayo wokuhlanganisa ubufandana bokuqala nomqondo wokungathathi hlangothi. Uma ubukho bakuqala ngokwabo bungachazwa ngokungezwani, khona - ke izibopho zomahluleli zomuntu siqu zezindlela zokusebenzisa inqubo ziwuthinta ngokungenakugwenywa umphumela. Umahluleli ofunda umlando kabanzi angase afinyelele umphumela ohlukile kunowufunda ngokuncane. Isithembiso sokungathathi hlangothi siyahlehla njengoba indlela iphikisana kakhulu.

Ikusasa Lempikiswano

Izazi zomthetho ziyaqhubeka zicwenga inkolelo-mbono yokuqala. Ezinye, njengoProfesa Randy Barnett, zisekela “incazelo yokuqala ye-list” egcizelela incazelo yombhalo esikhundleni sezinhloso zabahleli. Ezinye, njengoProfesa William Baude, ziye zazama ukubonisa ukuthi ubuSulumane buwukuphela kwendlela esemthethweni ngaphansi koMthetho-sisekelo ngokwawo. Lezi zimo ezicatshangelwayo zingabucacisa ubuhlobo nokungathathi-hlangothi, kodwa azinakukwazi ukukuxazulula ngokuphelele. Uma nje abahluleli bekhetha phakathi kwezindaba ezingokomlando eziphikisanayo, ukungezwani phakathi kokuqala nokungathathi hlangothi kokwahlulela kuyoqhubeka.

Isiphetho

Ubuhlobo phakathi kokungathathi-hlangothi kobukhoma nokwahlulela buyinkimbinkimbi futhi buyi-million. Ubufandamentali bufuna ukuba kube indlela engathathi hlangothi kakhulu yokuchaza umthetho-sisekelo ngokumisa izinqumo ngencazelo ehleliwe engokomlando. Ezicini eziningi bulawula: bunqanda ukukhetha kokwahlulela ngentando yeningi, buhlonipha amalungelo entando yentando yeningi, futhi bunikeza isimiso esingaguquki. Nokho injongo yokungathathi hlangothi ifuna okungaphezu nje kwendlela ethile, ifuna ukuba umahluleli akwazi ukusebenzisa leyondlela engenambango, ukuphazamisa, noma ukuphazamisa kwezindinganiso zomuntu siqu. Inkinga yokungathathiwe hlangothi, kanye nefa lokungalungisi kokuqala kubeka inselele ukuthi inikeza imiphumela ngokuzenzakalela. Impikiswano phakathi kwabagxeki kanye nabagxeki babo impikiswano enkulu kakhulu idinga ukuthatha noma yiyiphi indlela yokuchaza ngokugcwele noma yini inqubo ewufinyelela ngokugcwele. Njengoba iNkamelweni yeNka yezongathanga yomthetho ephambili iyaqhubeka phakathi kwezempikiswa neyo eMelika neyo.