Umthetho-sisekelo we-United States uye wasebenza njengomthetho ophakeme wezwe emakhulwini amabili eminyaka, kodwa incazelo yawo iseyindaba yempikiswano ejulile neqhubekayo. Ikomiti kufanele ichaze kanjani incwadi ebhalwe ekupheleni kwekhulu leshumi elinesishiyagalombili lapho ibhekene nezindaba ezingamashumi amabili-kuqala ze-atlyms, ubunjiniyela bezakhi zofuzo, noma umshado ofanayo wobulili? Izikole ezimbili ezibanzi zomqondo zibusa lengxoxo: ukufundisa kokuqala nomqondo woMthetho-sisekelo ophilayo. Ukuqonda ubuhlobo phakathi kwalezi zici zezimiso zokuchaza kubalulekile kubalulekile ekuqondeni indlela umthetho waseMelika ovela ngayo nokuthi kungani izinqumo zokwahlulela ngokuvamile zibangela impikiswano enkulu. Lesi sihloko sihlola izincazelo, ukuhlukahluka okungoko ngokomlando, intuthuko yangempela yalamafilosofi amabili aphikisanayo, inikeza ukubukeka ngokubanzi empikiswaneni yempikiswano yomthetho wemithetho ye-mthetho womthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-siseko waseMelika.

Ukuchaza Ukuqamba Kwabantu

Ubuqaba buyinkolelo-mfashini yencazelo yomthetho-sisekelo ephethe incazelo yoMthetho-sisekelo kufanele imiswe futhi isekelwe ekuqondeni okwakukhona lapho ilungiselelo ngalinye ligunyazwa. Lendlela ilahla umqondo wokuthi incazelo yomthetho-sisekelo ingashintsha ngokuhamba kwesikhathi ngokuchazwa kabusha kokwahlulela. Kunalokho, izazi zokuqala ziphikisa ngokuthi noma isiphi inguquko kuMthetho-sisekelo kufanele ifike ngokulungisa okungokomthetho okubekwe esiQhingisweni V, hhayi ngokufunda kokwahlulela.

Incazelo Yomphakathi Yokuqala

Phakathi kobuKhomanisi bokuqala, kunezinhlobo ezimbili eziyinhloko. Ukuhumusha kwakudala, ngokuvamile okubizwa ngokuthi abagxeki benhloso yokuqala [[FTLT:1], kugxila kulokho abakhi bombhalo ngokwabo ababehlose ukuba baqonde. Lombono wathola ukuvelela kuma-1980 ngezibalo ezifana ne-Attorney General Edwin III neJaji uWilliam J. Brennan abagxeki benhloso yokuqala. Nokho, inguqulo engcono kakhulu esobala yencazelo yomphakathi yencazelo yokuqala ye-[[[[FLT:]] [FLT] [3] [inxanxa]. Lokhu kubuza ukuthi umuntu onengqondo u-Edrialtialgen Earnian Meese II neJamotmentsmes. IJastitual Scin, i-The Justicest Scinetics of train" ngaphandle kokuba ifuna ukuqonda kahle ukuthi incazelo yayo i-"

Abasekeli Abayinhloko Nemisuka Yomlando

I-renadaism ilandela izimpande zayo zokuhlakanipha enkathini eFuniweyo ngokwayo, lapho abadwebi bemidatha babevame ukunxusa khona incazelo yokuqala yemibhalo engokomthetho. Nokho njengenkolelo-lwazi engabonakali, yavela kakhulu ngokusabela ekunqumeni okukhulu kwe-Warren Court neBurger Court. Abameleli abaphezulu bahlanganisa iMahluleli Scalia, uClarence Thomas, Justice Robert Bork, noMahluleli u-Amy Coney noMahluleli Gor Gormoth. Izazi ezingokomthetho ezivelele njengoRand Barnett, iStencebre, noMichael Rambrey bathey futhi bathuthukisa inkolelo yokuqala, i-cracism ne-octiveism. Inhlangano yesizwe, eyasungulwa ngo-19882, yenza indima enkulu ekuthuthukise komthetho nakwenziwayo.[0]

Izimbangela Ezivamile Zokukholelwa Ebunsulwini Bokuqala

Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi ubuqali abunakusebenza ngoba ukunquma incazelo yokuqala yomphakathi yamalungiselelo angacacile (njengeSichibiyelo seSichibiyelo se-Hendth (igama elingu-8h negama elingavamile”) kunzima kakhulu. Baphikisa futhi ngokuthi ukukholelwa kokuqala kungaveza imiphumela ekhathazayo ngokokuziphatha, njengokusekela ukuhlukaniswa noma ukulinganisela isivikelo samalungelo omphakathi sanamuhla. Abavikeli basabela ngokuthi ukukholelwa ekubusweni kwakuqala kunikeza ukuzinza, ukubikezela, nokulandisa ngentando yeningi, nokuthi imiphumela engathandeki ngokokuziphatha kufanele ilungiswe ngenqubo yokulungisa inqubo yokwahlulela.

Imfundiso Ephilayo Yomthetho - sisekelo

Ngokungafani nomthetho-sisekelo ophilayo, umqondo womthetho-sisekelo ophilayo ukholelwa ukuthi incazelo yencwadi ingashintsha futhi kufanele iguquke ngokuhamba kwesikhathi ukubheka izimo ezintsha nentuthuko yezenhlalo. Lendlela ayibheki uMthetho-sisekelo njengesimiso esiqinile kodwa njengesisekelo esinamandla izimiso zayo okumelwe zisetshenziswe ezinkingeni zamanje. Ngaphansi koMthetho-sisekelo ophilayo, abahluleli bayakwazi ukuchaza iziqu ezibanzi zenkulumo [1] ezifana no-“berty,” noma“ inqubo yokuqala”

Intuthuko Engokomlando Nabasekeli Abayinhloko

Umqondo ophilayo woMthetho-sisekelo unezimpande ezijulile emcabangweni ongokomthetho waseMelika. UMahluleli omkhulu uJohn Marshall, ku-[FLT] uMculloch v. Maryland (1819), washo ngodumo ukuthi uMthetho-sisekelo “uzimisele ukukhuthazela iminyaka eminingi ezayo” futhi kumelwe“ uthathelwe izinhlupheko ezihlukahlukene zezindaba zabantu.” Ngekhulu lamashumi amabili leminyaka, uMahluleli u-Olfrey Holmes Jr., Justice Louis Brandeits, futhi kamuva uMahluleli u-Gene. Bren' usekela ngokunamandla lendlela yokuzivumelanisa. Inkulumo ka-1986 eGeorge Town University, “Umthetho we-Authority, u-Ratiation,” uyikhono lokusebenza kakhulu lokusekela kwe-Roundism Revicester, u-Right Treader, u-Foperation:[3] u-Devicelson, u-Devicelv. [ul]

Indima Yokuqapha Nokushintsha Kwezenhlalo

Abahleli bomthetho-mthetho - sisekelo baphikisa ngokuthi incazelo yoMthetho-sisekelo ilolongwa yizizukulwane zesibonelo sokwahlulela, isenzo somthetho, nokuziphendukela kwemvelo. Ngokwesibonelo, ukuvinjelwa kweSichibiyelo seSiphamiso se-8h esinonya nesingavamile ngokuvamile kuchazwa ngokwe- “izindinganiso eziguquguqukayo zesizotha eziphawula intuthuko yomphakathi okhulayo,” njengoba iNkantolo Ephakeme yashiwo ivumela izinkantolo ukuba zishaye imithetho yamanje ephula ukuqondwa kwelungelo eliyisisekelo, ngisho noma leyo mithetho yayibhekwa njengemthetho yezenkolo.

Izicelo Ezivamile Zomthetho - sisekelo Ophilayo

Abagxeki, ikakhulukazi abakholelwa ekudalweni, baphikisa ngokuthi uMthetho-sisekelo ophilayo unikeza abahluleli amandla angalawuliwe okuphoqelela imibono yabo siqu ngaphansi kwencazelo. Baphikisa ngokuthi ilulaza umthetho ngokwenza incazelo yomthetho-mthetho ingazinzi futhi incike kwezombangazwe ze-judicary. Abasekeli benkathi yokuqala baphawula futhi ukuthi isizukulwane esiFunda ukuThinjwa sasihlolwa amandla kahulumeni, hhayi ukusebenza njengeseshi esingasho lutho ngekhono lokwahlulela. Ukuze kuhlolwe ngokucophelela lemibono ephikisayo, bheka uchungechunge lwe-SCOUSTOUSlog ngobustism nomthetho womthetho-sisekelo wakuqala.

Umehluko Oyinhloko Phakathi Kwale Mikhawulo Emibili

Ingxenye eyinhloko isekelwe emthonjeni nasekuzinziseni kwencazelo yomthetho-sisekelo. I-Extrary ibheka emuva eqophelweni elimisiwe elingokomlando, kuyilapho ubushiqela obuphilayo bomthetho-sisekelo bubheke phambili ekususeni inqubo yezenhlalo. Amaphuzu alandelayo aqokomisa ukuhlukanisa okukhulu:

  • Umthombo wencazelo: Izizathu zobuProtoryism zisho ukuqonda komphakathi wokuqala ekutholeni i-ratting; ukuphila komthetho-sisekelo kubheka ukuchaza njengokuvela engxoxweni phakathi kombhalo, isandulela, nezindinganiso zamanje.
  • Ukwahlulela koMahluleli: Umahluleli wokuqala ufuna ukusebenzisa incazelo engokomlando ngokwethembeka, ngokuvamile evimbela imibono yomuntu siqu. Umahluleli ophila ngomthetho-sisekelo angasebenzisa ukwahlulela okwengeziwe ekusebenziseni izimiso ezibanzi emaqinisweni amasha.
  • I-acttive ku-Precedent: ibheka i-predicts njengebalulekile kodwa ayibophi uma iphikisana nencazelo yokuqala (umzk., Scalia ku- i-Diquality of Columbia v. Heller). Ukuphila kwe-mthetho-siseko kubeka isisindo esiphezulu esilandelanayo njengemoto yokukhula komthetho-mthetho-siseko.
  • Amandla okulungisa: Abasekeli bobuPhostoli bagcizelela ukuthi izinguquko ezinkulu kufanele zivele ngenqubo yeSiphakamiso V; abahleli bomthetho-sisekelo baphikisa ngokuthi inqubo yokulungisa inzima kakhulu nokuthi incazelo yokwahlulela ingawuvuselela ngokomthetho umthetho-sisekelo.
  • [[FLT:]] [[FLT: 1] Kusichibiyelo sesibili, abalandeli bokuqala bathembela ebufakazini obungokomlando ukuze bavikele ilungelo lomuntu ngamunye (] Heller[]); abalandeli bomthetho-sisekelo abaphilayo bangagxila ebudloveni banamuhla bebhamu nasekulondekeni komphakathi. Ekukhipheni isisu ngokuvamile abatholi ngokomthetho wecala ([[FLT:]4]] Dobbs v. Jackson’s Health Organization of Women ), kuyilapho abaholi besebenza ngomlando bethola enye eNingizimu ye-Gradition yenkululeko ([FLT:]] Roe. v[FLD]]

Impikiswano Esimisweni Sokwahlulela

Umehluko phakathi kobu qalo nobukhomanisi bomthetho-sisekelo obuphilayo ubonakala ngokucacile ezicabeni zeNkantolo Ephakeme nasemacaleni agunyaziwe. Izikhulu zokwahlulela ngokuvamile ziyangatshazwa ngefilosofi yazo echazayo, futhi umphakathi ngokuvamile ubheka iNkantolo ngale ndlela. Ukuqonda indlela ifilosofi ngayinye ehlela ngayo izinqumo eziwuphawu lwezici kubalulekile ekuqapheleni umthetho waseMelika.

Izimpawu Eziwuphawu Zibonisa Ukwehlukana

I-diliform of Columbia v. Heller [2008] iwukunqoba okuvamile kwe-professost. IJaji Scalia, ibhalela iningi, yathembela kakhulu emithonjeni engokomlando ukuze iphethe ukuthi iSichibiyelo sesibili sivikela umuntu ilungelo lokuba nebhamu ekhaya. Abagxeki, kuhlanganise noJaji Breyer ngokuphikisana, baphikisa ngendlela evumelanayo evumela iziqondiso zezibhamu ukuba zihlangabezane nezinkathazo zanamuhla.

sho iscreen. [[FLT:] [1973] nokuzithela kwayo ngokweqile kumaDobs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization[ [202] [202])) ebonisa ushicelo. [[FLT]] [[FLT]] [I-abonwa kabanzi njengesinqumo esiphilayo soMthetho-mthetho, uqaphela ilungelo lemfihlo lingabalwanga obala. [ii] AmaDobs , ngokungafaniswa nokuhlola kokuqala, ukuthola ukuthi inqubo engokomlando yokukhishwa kwezisuko nokubuyisela umbiko we-Active. I-Actito igcizelela ukuthi umbuzo womthetho-mthetho uqinisekisa ukuthi ukuhlolwa ukukhishwa ngezimiso zentando yeningi.

Obergefell v. Hoddegs (2015), eqaphela ilungelo lomthetho-sisekelo emshadweni ohlangene, iyisinqumo soMthetho-sisekelo esiyinhloko esiphilayo. Umbono woMahluleli uKennedy wanxusa iSichibiyelo seMithetho seshumi nane seSikhundla senkululeko nesizotha, ephikisa ngokuthi umshado uyilungelo eliyisisekelo elisuka emphakathini. Abaqondisi bokuqala njengoJaji Scialia noMahluleli Thomas baphikisa, basola iningi lokuveza kabusha umthetho ngaphandle kwesisekelo sombhalo noma isisekelo somlando.

Ukuze kusetshenziswe kakhulu uqobo lwe-production ezimweni zamuva, i-Cornell Legal Information inikeza ukucubungula okuwusizo.

Izingxabano Enkantolo

INkantolo yanamuhla ePhakeme kakhulu ihlanganisa abaQuquli abambalwa abathiwa baqala (iThomas, iGorfoth, iBarrett, i-Alito) nabanye abathembela ekwakheni umthetho-sisekelo (iSotomayor, iKagan, iJackson, futhi ngezinye izikhathi uMahluleli oMkhulu uRoberts). Kodwa amajaji awavoti njalo ngokuvumelana okuphelele nefilosofi yabo eshiwo. Ukucabangela kobukhoma, ukubuka idecisi, kanye namaqiniso acacile ngokuvamile avame ukubhidliza imigqa. Noma kunjalo, impi ephakathi kwalezi zikole ezimbili iyaqhubeka ilungisa imibono, i-Constantivences, nemibono ephikisayo.

Izimfune Zomthetho WaseMelika

Ukukhetha phakathi kobukhona bokuqala noMthetho-sisekelo ophilayo kunemiphumela efinyelela kude cishe kuzo zonke izingxenye zomthetho-sisekelo. Izindawo ezilandelayo zibonisa indlela ifilosofi ngayinye engaveza ngayo imiphumela ehlukene kakhulu.

Amalungelo Omphakathi Nesivikelo Esilinganayo

Abaqondisi bemithetho yezimiso bavame ukuphikisa ngokuthi iSichibiyelo se 144 i-Flimate Protection Claus kufanele sisetshenziswe njengoba abaqondisi baso ngo-1868, okungahlanganisi ukuvikelwa ekucwaleni ngokobulili, ngokwesibonelo. Abasekeli bomthetho-sisekelo abaningi abaphilayo, nokho, baphikisa ngokuthi isimiso sokulingana siye saqala ukunqabela ukucwasana okusekelwe ebulilini, ukukhubazeka, ubulili, nobulili. Izinqumo zeNkanto e [[FLT:] United States v.[FLY][FLY:1] (19696) (ukuvala nje ukuvunywa kwabesilisa eVMI) kanye [FLT] [[5] [FLT]] [ist] [ist] ne-ognodentist sholo Justicessssssssss Provicencess (icisogost) ngokulingana nomthetho oqinile, i-An.[5] ISivumevrentshi engaphezulu kakhulu yakuqala, i-Exfuzelelwe futhi i-Act

Ukuzishintsha Kwezinto Ngasese Nokuzishintsha Ngokuzenza Ube Wedwa

Ilungelo lomthetho-sisekelo lokufihla imfihlo, elisekela izinqumo zokuvimbela inzalo ( Griswold v.Connecticut), ukukhipha isisu ([ Roe[), kanye nokuhlanganisa okufanayo ( LYP]].[FLT]LY), ngokuyinhloko kuyimpumelelo yokucabanga komthetho-mthetho-sisekelo ovamile. Abaqalayo bayakwenqaba ububanzi, abangabhaliwe ekwasese, baphikisa ukuthi amalungelo emithetho yezomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo avikelwa ngokuqondile noma asekelwe kakhulu emlandweni. [FLT] [FLT:] izinqumo zesinqumo esiyinhloko [FLT] zimelela ukushintshwa okukhulu, ukuthi ukukhishwa kwelungelo lokukhishwa kwecala lokukhishwa kwecala ngenxa yokukhishwa kwemvume, futhi kuvela njalo njalo, uma kuvela ekuthole ukuthi kuveza ukukhishwa kwesinqumo.

Amalungelo Ezibhamu Nokulondeka Komphakathi

Izehlulelo zeSichibiyelo Sesibili ezilandelayo ([[FLT:]]] [[FLT]2]]McD v.Dolobha laseChicago, ] iNew York State Rifle & Pistol Association v. Bruen[FLT]]] [[FLT]]) ibonisa ukulawula kokuqala kwemisuka kulendawo. Isinqumo seBruen sidinga imithetho yebhamu ukuze ivumelane namasiko angokomlando omthetho wesibhamu, ukuhlolwa okungokomlando. Imithetho elawulayo iphikisa ukuthi lokhu kubheka amaqiniso anamuhla afana nobungako basedolobha, ukudubula, nokusetshenziswa kwezikhali ezithuthukisiwe. Ukuvinjiswa kwezibhamulo kuyoqhubeka kuyoqhubeka ziqhubeke nokuhlola noma zikhona yini imingcele yakudala ukudinga ukuphepha.

Amandla Kahulumeni Nokuhlukana Kwamandla

Ukuqala kokuqala kusekela umbono omncane wamandla kahulumeni, kulinganisela iSishaya-mthetho sokuhlukanisa amandla aso futhi kuqikelele ukuhlukaniswa okuqinile kwemibuso. IRehnquist ne-Roberts Courts ziye zasebenzisa ukucabanga kokuqala ukuze zibulale izici ze-Dolphing Against Women Act ([] United States v. Morrison[FL:1]] [[FLT]]]) kanye no-Afford Carence Act’s Médicaid (NFIB v. Sebelius]). I-mthetho-mthetho-siseko uthambekele ekuvumeleni igunya elibanzi ngaphansi kwezentengo no-Fatherine, ikakhulukazi ekukhulumeni kwezinkinga zezwe noma i-Clausscaeast. Izingxoxo zezezwe elizimele ezizimele kanye nezingamele ukubusa kwegunyazamandla azimele.[4]

Ukuwa Nokuxinana

Nakuba iboniswe kaningi njengehlukene, ukuhlelwa kokuqala nomthetho-sisekelo ophilayo akunaso isikhathi esikhona ukucindezeleka. Ezinye izazi ziphikisa ngokuthi “indlela yokuphila yakuqala” ingenzeka: incazelo yakuqala yamagama avamile afana no-“culquality nengavamile” ingavumela ukuhlelwa kwezinhlelo. Ngokwesibonelo, i-Seth Reformation Reformation iqonde ukuthi isijeziso esinonya ngo1791, kodwa indlela yokunquma unya ingathembela ezindinganisweni zamanje ngaphandle kokushintsha isimiso sokuqala. IJaji Scalia ngokwayo iyavuma ukuthi incazelo yokuqala ayifinyezi ukusebenza okungahluzeki; igcizelela kuphela incazelo engaphakathi kombhalo. Ngokufanayo, abahosho inqubo yemithetho ephilayo ingase ihlanganise ukuqonda okungoko ngokomlando lapho ichaza amagama. [FLT:]

Ngaphezu kwalokho, womabili amafilosofi ahlanganyela isibopho kuMthetho-sisekelo njengomthetho obophayo, futhi bobabili bathi banikeza ukubukezwa komthetho. Ukungavumelani kuphathelene nendlela yokuthola nokusebenzisa lowo mthetho. Uma kulindelekile, amajaji amaningi asebenzisa womabili amasiko kuye ngokuthi kuyini, aveza ukunqanda okungavumelani okungaguquguquki. Iphuzu elibalulekile liwukuthi ukuchazwa komthetho-sisekelo kuhilela ukwahlulela ngokungenakugwenywa, futhi ukukhetha indlela leso sahlulelo esisebenza ngayo.

Isiphetho

Ubuhlobo phakathi kobuKhosi-sisekelo obuphilayo nomqondo woMthetho-sisekelo ophilayo akuyona nje indida yemfundo; kuyiphutha eliyinhloko emthetho-mthetho womthetho-sisekelo waseMelika. I-lixriniism inikeza ukuzinza, ukulandisa kwentando yeningi, nokuhlobana nokwakheka koMsunguli, kuyilapho uMthetho-sisekelo ophilayo unikeza ukuvumelana, ukuvumelana, nokuvumelana, nenqubo yokusingatha ukungalungi nezimiso ezishintshanayo. Zombili izindlela ziye zaguqula imithetho yeNkakhulu yeNkanto ethinta ukuphila kwansuku zonke kwezigidi zezigidi ($], amalungelo okuzala, isibopho somuntu siqu, namandla ombuso. Njengoba isizwe siqhubeka sifunda impikiswano ngendlela yokufunda incwadi yaso yokusungula. Ukuqonda lamafilosofi achaza amafilosofi kunikeza amandla ezakhamuzi, abafundi, ochwepheshe bezomthetho, nochwepheshe bezomthetho wokuziphikisa kakhulu ngombuzo ongapheli namuhla, nangokuhlala njalo ngombuzo womthetho womthetho womthetho.

Ukuze ufunde ngokuqhubekayo nge-listism, bheka i-Oriarialism Blog[; ngombono ophilayo womthetho-sisekelo, Brennan Center yeJaji[ inikeza imithombo efinyelelekayo. Impikiswano ayikafinyelelwa, futhi isizukulwane ngasinye kumelwe sibambene ngendlela engcono kakhulu yokudumisa umbhalo nezimiso zomthetho-sisekelo kuyilapho sibusa i-parbacture ehlukene nenamandla.