Isingeniso: Ukuhlangana Kobabusi Ababili

Imfundiso esekelwe eMthethweni weSichibiyelo seshumi nanye seSichibiyelo seZwe, esekelwe eMthethweni wesiNgisi ovamile futhi ebekwe eSimisweni seshumi nanye, ibambelele kakhulu ukuthi ngeke ibekwe icala enkantolo kahulumeni ngaphandle kwemvume yabo. Lokhu kuvikela kohulumeni kuvela ekwamacala amaningi. Nokho, uma isizwe soMdabu waseMelika sizama ukuphoqelela amalungelo aso ngokumelene nohulumeni, lemfundiso ingaphikisana ngokuqondile nobukhosi besizwe. Ukuqonda indlela isimiso sokuvikela uhulumeni sokuzivikela esisebenza ngayo futhi lapho kuhlanganiswa khona nanoma ubani ofunda umthetho wezwe laseNdiya, izingxabano zezwe, noma ukulwa nombuso wobuzwe.

Ukungezwani phakathi kwalezizinhlobo ezimbili zobukhosi − isifundazwe nesizwe − kuye kwaveza indikimba eyinkimbinkimbi yomthetho wezezimali, izenzo zomthetho, kanye nezimpikiswano eziqhubekayo zezimiso. Nakuba amazwe ejabulela ukuvikeleka kumasudi, izizwe ziqashelwa ngokuthi “amazwe ancike ebukhosini” anamandla okuzilawula angokwemvelo. Ukukhungatheka kuba kubi kakhulu ezindaweni ezinjengelungelo lamanzi, intela, ukugembula, imingcele. Lesi sihloko sihlola izisekelo ezingokomlando zokuzivikela kombuso, isimo sobukhosi besizwe, izingxabano ezingokomthetho ezithi zivele, nendlela yokulungisa lezizithakazeko eziphikisanayo.

Ukuhlangana KoMbusi woMbuso: IZisisekelo Ezingokomlando Nezomthetho

Isichibiyelo Seshumi Nanye Nencazelo Yaso

ISichibiyelo seshumi nanye, esagunyazwa ngo-1795, sithi: “Amagunya okwahlulela e-United States ngeke athathwe njenganwebela kunoma yisiphi isilinganiso somthetho noma sokulingana, aqalwa noma aqulwe noma amangalelwe omunye wase-United States yi-Citizences of the State, noma i-Citizences noma iZiquagements zika-Hulumeni.” Ekuboneni kokuqala, ukuxazulula kubonakala kuncane kakhulu, kungena kuncipheka ku-(kuncane), kumane nje kuvimbela izakhamuzi zezwe . Kodwa iNkantolo Ephakeme iyisa lomqondo. [FLT] [FLT] [2] i-panight eqinile].[FLT] [FON] [FFT] [3] [9] [9] [ig] [ir.] [ig.]) [ivoston ishoshoshoshoshoshosho olusemthethweni oluqinileyo

Phakathi namakhulu eminyaka, iNkantolo iye yabeka imingcele elinganiselwe. Izishaya - mthetho zesifundazwe lapho senza ngaphansi kweSiqeshana 5 seSichibiyelo seshumi nane, uma ikhambi liqinisekile futhi ikhambi livumelana nokulimala. Imibuso ingavuma ngokuzithandela ukuvumelana nokuvinjelwa okungagunyazi, futhi imfundiso ye-Exte Young (1908) ivumela izikhulu zikahulumeni ukuba zivumele inkululeko eqhubekayo yokunqanda ukuphulwa komthetho kahulumeni. Naphezu kwalokhu kuphambene, umthetho oyisisekelo ungahlala unamandla: imvume engekho noma ingqungquthela esemthethweni, futhi isifundazwe asinakuyiswa enkantolo kahulumeni.

Okwenza Imibuso Ingakwazi Ukuhlangana NoMbusi

Izwe liphikisa ngokuthi ukuvikela kobushiqela kuvikela ingcebo yabo ezindaweni ezingapheli, kuvikela ikhono labo lokuhlela imithombo ngaphandle komthetho owesibili, futhi bahloniphe isithunzi sabo njengababusi abalinganayo phakathi kwesimiso sikahulumeni. Nokho, abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi lemfundiso ingavikela ekubekeni icala lokwephulwa komthetho-sisekelo, ikakhulukazi uma izinhlelo zomthetho (njenge-Indiya Gaming Regugation Act noma i-Ceac Water Act) zikhona. Ku-National American, lesisihlangu singaba udonga oluvimbela ukufinyelela ekulungeni ngokuphelele.

Ubukhosi Besizwe SaseMelika Somdabu: Umbuso Ohlukile

Umthombo Nezinga Lobukhosi Besizwe

Izizwe zomdabu zaseMelika azizona izidalwa zoMthetho-sisekelo; zazikhona njengezizwe ezizimele esikhathini eside ngaphambi kokuba i-United States iseke. Ngezivumelwano, iziyalezo eziphetheyo, nangezimiso, uhulumeni kahulumeni ngokungaguquki uye waqaphela izizwe njengezinhlangano ezizimele ezinamandla angokwemvelo ohulumeni. LeNkantolo Ephakeme United States v. Wheeler wachaza ubukhosi besizwe ngokuthi “ilungelo lesizwe lokuzibusa ngokwalo nokulawula izindaba zalo siqu.” Lobu bunganikezwangagunyazwe noma nguhulumeni wombuso ohlangene.

Izizwe zinegunya lokuchaza ubulungu bazo, ukulawula ubuhlobo basekhaya, ukuphatha ubulungisa, ukulawula amazwe esizwe nemithombo yemvelo, nokuhlanganyela emisebenzini kahulumeni enjengentela nentuthuko yezomnotho. Ngaphansi Montana v. United States [19981], izizwe zigcina igunya elifuze uhulumeni elingenayo ezindaweni ezizimele ezingezona amalungu esizwe noma eziziphatha ezisongela ukuthembeka kwesizwe kwezombangazwe, ukulondeka kwezomnotho, noma impilo nenhlalakahle. Lamagunya enza izizwe zibe namalungelo angempela ezindaweni ezingokomthetho zaseMelika, eduze nohulumeni wezwe nezizwe.

Ubuhlobo Bokwethembana Nesivikelo Sesizwe

Kwenezela olunye ungwengwezi lobunkimbinkimbi, uhulumeni kahulumeni unomthwalo wemfanelo wokuphathisa izizwe. Lobu buhlobo, obusekelwe ezivumelwaneni nasemthetho wecala njenge Georgia 1831], buphoqelela imisebenzi eUnited States ukuvikela impahla yesizwe nokuthuthukisa izithakazelo zesizwe. Ezimpikiswaneni eziningi phakathi kwezizwe nemibuso, uhulumeni usebenza njenge-interuntrix(or, kwezinye izimo, njengeqembu. Nokho, ulwelo lwezehlolo olungokomthetho lungavimbela ngisho nezenzo zokugcinwa komthetho uma umbuso wenqaba ukuvuma. Ukwethemba akuzenzangazenzi ngokuzenzekelayo ukuvikela kwesizwe; uKhomishane kumelwe wenze ngendlela esobala.

Lapho Izimfundiso Ziyachuma: Umbuso OnguMbusi Uhlangene Nomthetho Wesizwe

Ukuvimbela Izizwe Ekusubeni Kwamazwe

Impi eqondile kakhulu iyenzeka lapho isizwe sizama ukumangalela uhulumeni kahulumeni enkantolo kahulumeni. Ngokwesibonelo, isizwe singase sithi uhulumeni uye waphula umthetho kahulumeni ngokufaka intela engekho emthethweni emabhizinisini esizwe, uphazamisa amalungelo okudoba noma okuzingela esizwe agunyazwe isivumelwano, noma ukuhluleka ukuxoxa ngokuqomisana ngokufaka ucingo lwenkolo enhle ngaphansi koMthetho we-Indian Gaming Regugatation (IGRA). Ngaphansi kwemfundiso yokuvikela kwesimiso sombuso, umbuso ungaphakamisa isivikelo sokuthi awunakukhonzwa ngaphandle kwemvume yayo.

Ku iKhomishane yeThroxist v. ISizwe uBand Potawatomi Trinity of Oklama (1991], iNkantolo Ephakeme yathi iSichibiyelo seshumi Nenye sasivimbela isizwe ukuba sifake izikhulu zentela zikahulumeni enkantolo kahulumeni ukuze zithole intela eqoqwe ngokungafanele emalungwini esizwe noma kumalungu esizwe. ISizwe sase-Fatawatomit Trinity ngokwaso. INkanto engathi iSiphendulo seshumi Nenye sisebenza ngokufaniswa nezizwe zaseNdiya njengoba nje sisebenza ekususweni amaqembu azimele. Lokhu kubusa kwashiya izikhulu zentela kuhulumeni ngaphandle kwenkongozo zikahulumeni ukuba zibeke intela engekho emthethweni. Imvume kuphela eyayiqoqiwe kumalungu esizwe ngokuncitshiswa yinqubo yezomthetho yezombuso, indlela esizwe eziningi ezibheka njengengenayo noma ephakathi.

Ngokufanayo, Kiowa Tribun of Oklahoma v. Manufaciting Technologies, Inc. (1998], iNkantolo yandisa ukuvikeleka kwesizwe esuthini (ukuze ingasebenzi yezentengiselwano) ngesikhathi esifanayo iqinise isivikelo sombuso ngokwawo. Isinqumo saqokomisa ukulinganisela okubucayi: umbusi ngamunye ujabulela ukuvikeleka, kodwa ukuhlangana phakathi kwesizwe nesimiso sokuzivikela kombuso kungashiya izingxabano zingaxazululwa nanoma yiziphi inkantolo.

Imisebenzi Eyingqayizivele Nengase Isebenze

Izimpahla Ezincane Zokwehlukanisa

Enye yemisebenzi yokwahlulela ebaluleke kakhulu ukuhlanganisa i- imfundiso ye-Ex Young. Ngalendlela, isizwe singamangalela isikhulu sikahulumeni ekhonweni laso lomuntu siqu lokufuna ukukhululeka kokuvimbela ukwephulwa okuqhubekayo komthetho kahulumeni. Isuti ayimelene nombuso ngokwawo, ngakho ukuzivikela kobuso akusebenzi. Njengesibonelo, isizwe singakhokha umqondisi wenhlangano yezemvelo ukuze sinqande ukungcola okuphula izindinganiso zezwe, ngisho noma uhulumeni ngokwawo ugonye. Lelithuluzi liye lasetshenziswa emalungelweni amanzi, ukugebha, nokusetshenziswa kwezindaba zezwe, kodwa ngeke kunikeze ukulimaza noma ukuhlenga okunga kahle.

Ukunqanyulwa Kokuhlanganiswa KoMbuso Ngemikhankaso Yomphakathi

UKhomishane ungasusa ngokuqondile izigaba zesimiso sokuvikela ubukhosi lapho ilawula ngaphansi kwemibuso yayo ebalayo. Nokho, iNkantolo Ephakeme ibeke imingcele eqinile kulombuso. USiminole Fribe yaseFlorida v. Florida[ [1966], iNkantolo yanquma ukuthi iNkantolo ayinakho ukuzivikela kombuso okuzimele uma isebenzisa i-Creatting Classione (I, i-Actle 8). Lesi sinqumo sashaya igalelo elikhulu ezizweni, sishaya ilungiselelo le-IGRA elivumele izizwe ukuba zihlule ukugena amaqoqo okholo aqinile. [Phakathi 'FLT] [FLD] [FLT] zizwe] Azizonke, isigaba esingaphezulu kwesibopho esingokomthetho senkantolo. Inkantolo yomthetho eyayisele ingekho imvume yokusebenzisa inqubo yokukhipha inqubo eselekile yokusebenzisa inqubo yomthetho yokukhipha imvume yokulwa kwemithetho esele.[FL:]

Ukulahla Icala Ngaphansi Kwemithetho Yamalungelo Omphakathi Ehlangene

Enye indlela i-Proving queror i-Grand 1983 noma ezinye iziqondiso zamalungelo omphakathi ezithi ziphulwa amalungelo kahulumeni. Kodwa iNkantolo iye yathi i-Catego 1983 ayilona igobe likahulumeni elizimele; izifunda zingaqinisa isciom ngaphandle kokuba uMkhandlu uhlose ngokucacile. Lokhu kusho ukuthi izivumelwano eziningi zomthetho-sisekelo ngokumelene nezifunda zezwe − njengezinselele zesivikelo ezilinganayo emithethweni yombuso yokuvimbela uhulumeni.

Ithonya Ekwengameleni Imithombo Yezinto Nokuzilawula

Imiphumela ewusizo yokuzimela kwesizwe ukuba simelane nezizwe inkulu. Uma izizwe zingenakukwazi ukukhokha izivumelwano, zilahlekelwa ithuluzi elibalulekile lokuvikela amazwe azo, amanzi, namalungelo esivumelwano. Cabangela isibonelo samalungelo amanzi eNtshona mpumalanga eyomileyo: izizwe eziningi zigcine amalungelo amanzi ngaphansi kwemfundiso yeWinters (1908), kodwa izifunda zivame ukubeka amanzi ngemvume yazo siqu yemvume. Uma uhulumeni owehlayo evimbela amanzi noma uvumela abasebenzisi bomfula ukuba baqede umfula oxhomeke kuwo, isizwe singase singakwazi ukukhokha isifunda isifundazwe esiphethe inkantolo esiphethe amalungelo aso aphakeme. Ilungelo lokulawula lingaba yimpi ebibiza imali ephambi kwebhodi yamanzi kahulumeni, noma ukucela uhulumeni ukuba ungenele esizwe.

Ngokufanayo, endaweni yezomthetho, uhulumeni ozimele wesizwe ungavimbela imizamo yesizwe yokubekela inselele ukungenela kwesizwe ekuqikelelweni komthetho wesizwe. Ngaphansi United States v. McBratney (1881], amazwe ngokuvamile anegunya phezu kwabantu abangewona amaIndiya abenza ubugebengu, kuyilapho izizwe ezingenawo amandla obugebengu kubantu abangekho emaIndiya. Kodwa uma izikhulu zikahulumeni zithatha igunya lazo (h_zesibonelo, ngokubopha amalungu esizwe ngaphandle kwesizathu noma ukuthatha impahla yesizwe) zingabhekana nezithiyo uma zizama ukumelana nomthetho ezweni lase-Indiya.

Intuthuko Yamuva Nemibono Eshintshashintshayo Yokwahlulela

Izinqumo Zenkantolo Ephakeme Emashumini Eminyaka Adlule

Eminyakeni yamuva nje, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yakhipha izinqumo eziningana ezinikeza isiqondiso esithile, kanye nokukhululeka ngezinye izikhathi (kungokosizo lwezizwe ezibhekene nokuzivikela kombuso. General Dollar Corp. v. Mississippi Band wamaNdiya ase Choctaw (20206), iNkantolo inikeze imvume yokunquma ukuthi izinkantolo zesizwe zinegunya yini ekumelaneni nezinhlangano ezingamalungu esizwe, ngisho nalapho ukuzivikela kwesizwe kungenandaba. INkantolo ekugcineni yahlukanisa 4-4 ngemva kokufa kukaMahluleli ka-Sctalia, iqinisekisa isinqumo se-Clitali yeSifunda sesihlanu sokuthi inkantolo yesizwe ingalawula. Nakuba inkantolo ezimisele ukuvikela inkantolo yesizwe, icala elihloselwe ukuvikela iNkamezomthetho yesizwe.

Michigan v. Bay Mills Indian Community (2014, iNkantolo yagcizelela ukuthi izivalo zokuzivikela komzimba zifanele ukulwa nezizwe ngemisebenzi yezentengiselwano engekho emabuthweni, ngaphandle kokuba uKhongolo luye lwamisa ukugonyelwa kwesizwe. Icala lalihilela umbuso owawufuna ukukhokha isizwe ukuze sisebenzise indawo yokugembula ngaphandle kwemingcele yayo. INkantolo yagcizelela ukuthi ukuvikela kwesizwe “kuyisimiso esixeshisiwe” naleyo `Ingqungquthela] [hhayi]. Lesi sinqumo siqinisa ukuvikeleka kwezizwe ngesikhathi esisodwa lapho siqokomisa ukuvikelwa kwazo ngokuzivivinya kwazo, kodwa izizwe zingazivikela.

Imizamo Yokushaya Indiva Nemithetho

KuKhongolo, kuye kwafakwa izikweleti eziningana ukuze kukhululwe ngokungalingani. Ngokwesibonelo, isithiyo esihlongozwayo esithi “Tribal Access to Justice Act” singavumela izizwe ukuba zidlulise izikhundla enkantolo kahulumeni ngenxa yokwephulwa kwezivumelwano, izibopho zikahulumeni, nemithetho ethile enjenge-Indian Child Welfare Act. Nokho, lezizikweleti ziye zagcinwa phakathi kokuphikiswa ohulumeni nokukhathazeka ngohulumeni. Ezinye izazi zomthetho zisekela umsebenzi onamandla kakhulu ex ede Young[FLT] noma izinhlangano zikahulumeni ukuba zihlome umthwalo onzima onzima ngokushunyathiswa yizigosakaziwe yizizwe.

Enye indlela iwukusetshenziswa kwezivumelwano zohulumeni ezixhunyaniswayo. Izizwe eziningi nezifunda ziye zangena ezinhlabeni zolwazi oluhlanganisa ilungiselelo lokuvikela ubukhosi ezimpikiswaneni ezithile. Ngokwesibonelo, amaqoqo ahlukene esizwe ngaphansi kwe-IGRA avame ukuphikisana ngezinqumo zesinqumo ezivumela noma yimuphi umkhakha ukuba athathe isinyathelo enkantolo kahulumeni, ngaleyondlela zivume ukuvumelana. Lezimiso zokuzithandela ziye zaphumelela emongweni kodwa azivamile kwezinye izindawo njengamalungelo amanzi noma imithetho yendawo ezungezile.

Ukubheka Phambili: Ukulinganisela Imibuso Yobulungisa

Indlela Eholela Ekulungeni

Abasekeli bobubusi besizwe baphikisa ngokuthi umsebenzi wamanje womthetho owenzelwe ukuvikela uveza ukufakwa okungadingekile futhi ukhuthaza isimo. Ngenxa yokuthi izizwe azikwazi ukuwasebenzisa kalula amalungelo azo, kusho ukuthi azinaso isisusa sokuxoxa ngokholo oluhle ezindabeni ezinjengokukhokha intela, ukuzingela namalungelo okudoba, nokuhlela indawo. Ukuveza izinga lokuvikela uhulumeni ngokusemthethweni, noma ngokufunda ngokusemthethweni noma ngokufunda kakhulu ingxenye engcono ye-Young

I-Congress ingahlanganisa nokunyundela okucacile kokuzivikela kukahulumeni lapho izizwe zimangalela ngaphansi kwaleyomithetho. Nakuba USITIOLE Tribe ivimbela ukuhloba ngaphansi kwe-Indiya Commerce Claus, uKhongolo lungaphinde lungaphinde lushabalale uma lusebenza ngaphansi kweSiphendulo se-145 se-Expression noma iSivumelwano u-Celastene. Umthetho owenziwe ngokucophelela ohlanganisa amalungelo esizwe ukuze uvikeleke noma ulinganise nenqubo efanelekile ungasinda ekubukezweni komthetho-mthetho.

Ukuhlonipha Isimo Sesizwe Nokuzinqumela

Ekugcineni, ukuxazulula ukungezwani phakathi kwesizwe esizimeleyo sokuzivikela kombuso nobukhosi besizwe kudinga ukuqaphela ukuthi izizwe aziwona nje amaqembu enzalo noma amahlalisane azimele. Zingohulumeni abanombuso ohlukile oweminyaka engamakhulu amaningi edlule. I-United States inomthwalo wemfanelo obekelwe isokuvikela izithakazelo zesizwe, futhi uMthetho-sisekelo ngokwawo uyavuma indima ekhethekile yezizwe zamaNdiya eMkhandlwini ka Claus. Njengoba iNkantolo Ephakeme ephawulwe [FL: 0] [Mclahan v. i-Arizona State Taxicom [773]), imithetho yezwe ivame ukukhomba amalungu esizwe ezindaweni ngaphandle kokuba inikeza imvume ecacile. Lesimiso kufanele sidlulisele kumthetho wokuzivikela: njengoba nje kusho ukuthi amaqembu esizwe ngaphandle kwemvume yombuso, akumelwe akwazi ukuzivikela emibusweni yesizwe lapho eklanywe ukuba ahlulele imithetho yesizwe.

Okwamanje, izizwe kumelwe zisebenzise indawo ehlukene engokomthetho. Zithembela ekusebenziseni ukudala Isudi esha ex propee Young, intethelelo kahulumeni nguMnyango woMahluleli, nezivumelwano ze-biverdal ukuze zixazulule izingxabano. Ikusasa lingaletha inguquko yemithetho noma icala elisha leNkanto ePhakeme kakhulu elihlola kabusha izisekelo zokuzivikela zikahulumeni njengesebenza kumazwe amaNdiya. Okusobala ukuthi isimiso samanje sivame kakhulu ukushiya izizwe ngaphandle kwekhambiso eliphumelelayo, lilulaza isithembiso esiyinhloko sobukhosi besizwe: amandla okuvikela abantu bazo, amazwe, nendlela yokuphila.

Isiphetho

Ukuzivikela kombuso kuyisisekelo sesimiso sobuzwe baseMelika, kodwa ukusebenza kwaso ezizweni zoMdabu waseMelika kuphakamisa imibuzo ejulile mayelana nobulungisa, ukulingana, nokubusa komthetho. Izizwe azizona izizwe zakwamanye amazwe, futhi azizona nje izigaba zikahulumeni wezwe, futhi azihlukene, amakhosi akhona ngaphambili anamalungelo abekwe ngaphambi koMthetho-sisekelo ngokwawo. Uma amazwe efihla ukuvikela ukuqulwa, awalimazi nje kuphela izizwe ezithile kodwa futhi acindezela ukulinganisela okuqinile okuye kwavumela ukuba ubudlelwane besizwe ukuba busebenze emakhulwini amabili eminyaka.

Njengoba ziqhubekela phambili, izinkantolo nabenzi bomthetho kumelwe basebenzele ukuqinisekisa ukuthi isivikelo sokuzivikela kobukhosi asibi amathuluzi okungabi nabulungisa. Ngokucacisa imingcele yokugonywa, ngokuhlonipha ukuzinqumela kwesizwe, nangokunikeza izikhangiso ezinengqondo ukuze kuxazululwe isinqumo, isimiso somthetho singadumisa kokubili ubukhosi bemibuso nobukhosi bezizwe ezihlanganyela lelizwe.