Umqondo wokuqulwa kwecala uyisisekelo sesimiso somthetho emiphakathini eminingi yentando yeningi. Isebenza njengendlela ebalulekile yokuqinisekisa ukulunga nokulingana ekuqondiseni ubulungisa. Iqembu lezakhamuzi ezivamile − elikhethelwe ukuzwa ubufakazi futhi linikeze isinqumo //imelela isahlulelo somphakathi wonke, esebenza njengesivikelo ekusetshenzisweni kabi kwegunya lombuso noma izigebengu ezicebile. Nakuba lesimiso singenakho ukungapheleli kwaso, ukukhuthazela okungokomlando nokusebenza kwezinhlu zabahluleli kugcizelela indima yaso esekelweni lentando yeningi ekusekeleni izindinganiso zentando yeningi. Lesi sihloko sihlola izimo ezingokomlando zokuqulwa kwejaji, indima yaso ekuthuthukiseni ukulunga nokulingana, izinselele esibhekenezokusetshenziswa kwezwe lanamuhla, futhi imizamo eqhubekayo yokulondoloza ubuqotho bayo.

Isisekelo Esingokomlando Sovivinyo LobuJuli

Ilungelo lokuqulwa kwecala labahluleli alizange livele ngokuphelele emakhulwini eminyaka, okubonisa umzabalazo omude wokulinganisela igunya elizimele futhi uhilela umphakathi ekuqondiseni ubulungisa. Ukuqonda lo mlando kubalulekile ekuqondeni ukuthi kungani abasizi bejaji ngokuvamile begujwa njengensika yokubusa kwentando yeningi.

Imvelaphi Yasendulo Yaya EMthethweni Ovamile WesiNgisi

Izindlela zokuqala zomphakathi ekuhlanganyeleni ekuhluleleni izingxabano zingatholakala e-Greece naseRoma yasendulo, kodwa owandulela ngokuqondile wabahluleli banamuhla yisimiso somthetho samaNgisi esivamile. Ngekhulu le-12, iNkosi uHenry II yaqala “ubukhulu,” indikimba yamadoda endawo eyabizwa ukuba inikeze ubufakazi obufuhiwe ngobugebengu obungaqinisekiyo nezimpikiswano endaweni yayo. Lemijaho yakuqala yayingafani kakhulu nabatholi banamuhla abangakhethi futhi befana nofakazi abanolwazi lomuntu siqu. Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, indima yabahluleli bokwahlulela isuka ekunikezeni ubufakazi, ngokunikeza ubufakazi obungakhonjiwe futhi baphikisa emacaleni asobala enkantolo enziwayo ngekhulu le-15 leminyaka.

Izenzakalo eziyinhloko zihlanganisa iMagna Carta (1215), eyamisa izimiso zenqubo efanelekile nokwahlulela kontanga, kanye nokuqulwa kwecala kukaWilliam Penn ngo-1670, lapho ijaji laseNgilandi lenqaba khona ukubeka uPenn icala lokushumayela, imisa isimiso sokuthi amajaji awanakujeziswa ngenxa yezinqumo zawo. Lelicala eliyingqophamlando laqinisekisa ukuthi abajaji yibo kuphela abanquma iqiniso nomthetho ekusebenziseni kwabo, futhi `a `umqondo owaziwa ngokuthi [ ukulahlwa kwecala, okuhlala kungumphumela onamandla uma kunezici zempikiswano zesimiso.

Ukutholwa KwaseMelika Nomthetho - sisekelo

Amakoloni aseMelika azuza ifa lesiko lokwahlulela laseNgilandi futhi alibheka njengelungelo eliyisisekelo. AbaQinisi babheka ukuqulwa kwecala njengesivikelo sokulwa namajaji ngokuphaza kweBrithani − umuzwa owavezwa eSivumelwaneni senkululeko, esakhononda ngokuthi “sisikhipha, ezimweni eziningi, ngezinzuzo zokuqulwa kwecala likaJury.” AbaQinisi bafaka lelilungelo eSivumelwaneni samaLungelo. [[FLT:]] ISiphendulo secala [[FLT: 1]] esiqinisekisa ukuqulwa kwecala nomphakathi okusheshayo kwejaji elingakhethi ezicabeni zobugebengu, kuyilapho iSimendeze [[FLT] [FLT] igcine isokudla ukuqulwa kwecala ezinkantolo ezihilela ukuvikelwa kwezakhamuzi ezihilela izikhululo ezingokwamthetho ezingokomthetho ezingokwasebuthweni ezingokwasebubhini ezingamashumi amabili namashumi amabili. Lezi zimiso zomthetho ziveza inkolelo yomthetho ezivamile ezinikezwa yizezehlulelo ezingokomthetho ezingokomthetho ezingokomthetho zezo ezingokomthetho.

INkantolo Ephakeme iye yacacisa ngokwengeziwe isilinganiso selungelo lejaji. Ngokwesibonelo, ku-Duncan v. Louisiana (1968), iNkantolo yaphetha ngokuthi isiqinisekiso seSigamu seSithandathu sesinqumo secala lokwahlulela sisebenza ezinkantolo zezwe ngeSimemezelo se-14th Reformation, ifuna ngokuphumelelayo ukuba wonke amazwe anikeze icala lomthetho elingathi sína. Ngaphezu kwalokho, iNkantolo iqinisekisa ukuthi amajaji kumelwe akhethwe engxenyeni ekhethekile eqenjini lezehlulele lomphakathi, isimiso esiqiniswa emacaleni anjenge . Lounian[FLT] v[FLD][FLD][3][9][9][9][9][9]] [zihluzohluzo eziqhubekayo ukuqulwa kwemiciselwa kwemibhiso.[icisho ewusizo.[icisho olusemthethweni lokulungayo ukwenza i-jajingamele i-mthetho.[Flkmstryle.[

Indima Yokulingwa Kwamajukuju Ekuthuthukiseni Ukulunga

Ukulunga kwesimiso somthetho akuzenzakaleli. Kuxhomeke ekuhloleni nasekulinganiseni okuvimbela ubandlululo, iphutha, noma ukuxhaphaza. Ukuhlola kwe Jury kusiza ekuqondeni ngokungakhethi ngezindlela eziningana ezihlukene, kuhlanganise nokubukeza ontanga, ukuhileleka komphakathi, nokuvezana komphakathi. Kusebenza futhi njengesici esibalulekile sesimiso somshushisi, esincike ekucindezelekeni phakathi kokumangalela nokuzivikela ukuze kuvezwe iqiniso.

Ukubukeza Kontanga Nesimiso Esibi

Iqembu labahluleli lisebenza njengeqembu lontanga .izakhamuzi ezivamile eziletha okuhlangenwe nakho kokuphila okuhlukahlukene nokunengqondo enkantolo. Ngokungafani nomahluleli oyedwa, ongase abe nobandlululo ngenqubo yomsebenzi noma athonywe ukucindezela kwezinhlangano, isinqumo somphakathi sithambekela ekunciphiseni ubandlululo lwabantu ngabanye. Ukucwaninga kusikisela ukuthi amajaji athambekele kakhulu ekucabangeleni ubufakazi obuningi kanye nemibono, ikakhulukazi uma ijaji lihlukene. Inqubo yamajaji, lapho kokubili kuvela ubufakazi ngokuhlola nangokuhlola, iklanyelwe ukuqinisekisa ukuthi abahluleli balalela zonke izimpikiswano ezihlobene nayo ngaphambi kokuba bakhiphe izigebengu.

Enye yemisebenzi ebaluleke kakhulu yokulunga kwejaji yigunya layo lokuhlola ukuthembeka kofakazi. Abasizi baqaphela isimo sengqondo, babheka ukungavumelani, futhi basebenzise ukuqonda kwabo siqu ukuziphatha kwabantu [1] umsebenzi ongase ukwenziwa abahluleli, kodwa owenziwa abahluleli ngegunya eligcwele emphakathini. Izifundo, kuhlanganise nalezo eziqoqwe [[FLT]] American Bar Association, zibonise ukuthi igalelo lejaji lithatha indima yalo ngokungathi sína, linikeza izigwebo ezivame ukuvumelana nobufakazi obuningi kunokugxeka okuthandwayo.

Ama - explome AseMbusweni Kahulumeni Nasezahlulelweni

U Jury ukuqulwa kwecala kusebenza njengendlela ebalulekile yokuhlola uhulumeni, ikakhulukazi ezicaleni zobugebengu lapho uhulumeni umangalela khona umuntu othile. Imfuneko yokuthi ijaji kumelwe livumelane ngazwi linye ngecala (ezingxenyeni eziningi) ibeka umthwalo onzima enkantolo, okwenza kube nzima ukubopha umuntu ongenacala. Lokhu “ukuqubuka kwecala” kusuka enkolelweni yokuthi kungcono ukuvumela abantu abayishumi abanecala ukuba bahambe bakhululeke kunokuba balahle umuntu ongenacala.

Amajaji asebenza futhi njengesikhawulo sokumelene nobandlululo lokwahlulela. Nakuba amajaji kulindeleke ukuba angakhethi, angabantu. Ijaji lingaqeda umthetho abawubheka njengongalungile, njengoba kwenzeka ekuqaleni kwekhulu lama-20 lapho amajaji enqaba ukubeka icala abamangalelwa ngaphansi kwemithetho engokomthetho yokujezisa. Nakuba ukulahla isigwebo kuphikisana ngoba kungaholela ekusetshenzisweni komthetho ngokungavumelani nezimo, futhi kunikeza futhi isivalo sokuphepha ngezimo lapho ukusebenzisa umthetho ngokuqinile kungaveza umphumela ongalungile. Amandla ejaji lokukhulula abamangalelwa naphezu kobufakazi obucacile becala (nawokuvikelwa ekujezisweni ngenxa yokwenza kanjalo) ahlala ewukubonakaliswa okunamandla kwezindinganiso zomphakathi.

Ithemba Elicacile Nelasemphakathini

Ukuqulwa kwecala kuvulekele umphakathi, okuthuthukisa ukubonakala nokulandisa. Ukuba khona kwezibukeli, imithombo yezindaba, namalungu omphakathi kuqinisekisa ukuthi izenzakalo ziqhutshwa ngokufanelekile futhi noma yikuphi ukuziphatha okubi kuyadalulwa. Uma abantu bebona izakhamuzi ezivamile zinquma amacala, kuqinisa umqondo wokuthi ubulungisa abuyona inqubo egcinelwe amaqembu aphezulu kodwa inomthwalo wemfanelo ohlanganyelwe. Ngokwesinqumo Isikhungo Sesizwe sezinkantolo zezwe [, umbiko womphakathi, ukuthembana ezinkantolo kunezimo eziqinile zemibono engakhethi. Ngokungafani, uma izahlulelo zibhekwa njengezingalungiyo ngenxa yezinhlanga noma ezinye izinkinga zobandlululo.[FLT]

Ukulingana Nempi: Ukuqina Nezinselele

Ukulingana kuyisithembiso esiyinhloko sokuqulwa kwecala labahluleli. Inhloso iwukuthi amajaji amelela ukuhlukaniswa okulungile komphakathi, aqinisekisa ukuthi alikho iqembu elikhishwayo ngokuhlelekile. Nokho, ukufinyelela isilinganiso esilinganayo ngempela kuseyinselele ephikelelayo.

Imfuneko Yokumiswa Kwesiphambano Esilungile

Inkantolo Ephakeme isho ngokuphindaphindiwe ukuthi amajaji kumelwe athathwe emthonjeni obonisa inani labantu ababuswayo. ISichibiyelo seSisithupha sidinga ukuba ibhodi labameleli libe yi-astros-cate; kodwa, i-jaji langempela lihlezile akumelwe libe nesilinganiso esiphelele. Isihluthulelo siwukuthi akukho qembu elibonakalayo (i-backtabythes) elisekelwe ehlalweni, ubulili, noma ubuzwe (i-"i-6th Remead) likhishwe ngamabomu enqubeni yokukhetha. Lesimiso saqiniswa Bhatson v.[[[FLT:] [[FLT]] [12]] [196]]), elivimbela ukusebenzisa izinselele ukuze kukhishwe izinselele ezingasekhona ngokuhlukanisa isisekelo sohlanga noma ubulili. 2016, eNkakhulu i-1964, i-1966, i-19, i-B.[3]

Izithiyo Eziphikelelayo: Izinselele Eziyize, Izibi Eziphelele Nezinto Ezingafani Kwezenhlalo Nezomnotho

Naphezu kwalezi zivikelo ezingokomthetho, ubandlululo lwezinhlanga kanye nezinye ukucwasana kusangena ekukhetheni abasizi bejaji. () ivumela abameli ukuba bakhiphe inani elilinganiselwe labasizi bejaji ngaphandle kokusho isizathu () ivame ukusetshenziswa kabi ukukhipha abagcini bemibala. A 2020 bahlolwa [[FLT]]] [[1]] ukuncintisana kwe-Denver Law Review [[[FLT]][2][FLT][FLT]] [[FLT]] bathola ukuthi abashushicileli bamaBlamlam emikhakheni ethile, okuholela ngaphansi kwemikhakha ehlwini yangempela. Iziphetho zemali. Ngokungaphezulu, izimali eziningi zincintisa izikhala zemali futhi zikhona. Izindleko zokuhlola izimali ezisekela abantu abambalwa kakhulu kulezi ngxenye ye- - ngxenye yemali, kodwa inzuzo yezisebenzi ezisemkhasimu eliphansi, futhi zincikelele izikhala zezisebenzi zezisebenzi zezelelwa kakhulu, izikhulu zezisebenzi zezisebenzi zezelelwa yinxa, futhi

Ukuhlukahluka Kwenkululeko: Isizathu Sokuba Kubaluleke

Amajaji ahlukene aveza izinqumo ezingcono. Ukuhlolwa kwephawu uMthetho we-Berkeley kwabonisa ukuthi ukuhlelwa kwemidaba ehlukene ngokwezinhlanga ngenhloso isikhathi eside, kuthathwa njengobufakazi obungaphezulu, futhi kuvame kakhulu ukuxoxa ngezindaba ezihlobene nohlanga obala. I-homogeon jubery, kwesinye isandla, yayithambekele kakhulu ekusebenziseni izinqumo zokucabanga nokukhetha okunesulela. Ukuba khona kwemibono eminingi kunciphisa ithonya lobandlululo lwezinhlanga futhi kuholela ekuhlaziseni ngokucophelela. Lokhu kugcizelela ukuthi kungani imizamo yokuqinisekisa ukuthi ukumeleka okulungile okungoko okungoko kuvela phakathi kohluzo kodwa okungahlobene nemfanelo yobulungisa ngokwayo.

Umphumela Wovivinyo Lwamajukusha Omphumela Ongokomthetho Nomphakathi

Izinqumo ze Jury zingaba nemiphumela enzima, hhayi nje kuphela embangweni kodwa futhi nasendleleni engokomthetho nesimo sengqondo somphakathi ngobulungisa. Amandla okwahlulela okumisa izindinganiso nokuhlela umthetho, ikakhulukazi ezicabeni zomphakathi ezihilela ukulimala okukhulu, azenza zibe nethonya lokuba kokubili kube nokulandisa futhi, ngezikhathi ezithile, kube nempikiswano.

Ukusetshenziswa Kwabantu Abayidlabha Ezicaleni Zomphakathi Nezezigebengu

Nakuba amajaji emithethweni evamile ‘ engenzi umthetho” ngendlela efanayo neyamajaji, izinqumo zawo zingathonya izinqumo zokwahlulela nokuguqula imithetho. Amajaji ecala lomkhiqizo kanye nezenzo zokwelapha ezingekho emthethweni ngokuvamile aholela ekushintsheni ukuziphatha kwenkampani noma ukuqondisa. Ngokwesibonelo, imboni yezokudla eyaziwayo [[FLD:0] Liebeck v. McDonald’s Restautants[ icala, lapho ijaji lezehlulele, lapho ijaji likhokha khona izigidi ukuba zishiswe ngekhofi elishisayo, lishukumisele izinkonzo eziphansi namazanyuku. Emthetho wobugebengu, umkhokhi womthetho oweqa uqobo ezimweni eziphezulu njenge-propati. [up.] Simpson, nobufakazi obungokwesizwe, nomthetho wezenteko.

Ukuchitha isigwebo, nakuba kungavamile, kungathumela futhi umyalezo onamandla. Uma amajaji enqaba ukulahlwa ngaphansi kwemithetho abheka njengokungalungile njengokungathi phakathi ne-Civil Rights Movement, lapho amaphoyisa aseNingizimu ekhulula abashisekeli bamalungelo omphakathi ecala noma ukuphulwa kokuthula − awenzi ngokomthetho osebenzayo. Ukusetshenziswa kwezehlulelo zokulahla isigwebo kuhlala kuphikiswana kakhulu, ngokuphikisa okuthile kululaza umthetho futhi abanye bewudumisa njengendlela yokugcina yokuphendukela ekumelaneni nemithetho ecindezelayo.

Ukuqhathanisa Ukulingwa KweJury Nokulingwa Kwe - Benk

Akuwona wonke amacala aqulwayo phambi kwamajaji; amaningi ayizikhambi ezivamile, lapho umahluleli ekhetha khona amaqiniso nomthetho kuphela. Ukuqulwa kwecala likaBench kuvame ukuvunyelwa ezimpikiswaneni eziyinkimbinkimbi, ikakhulukazi ezimpikiswaneni zezentengiselwano, ngoba abahluleli banolwazi oluningi ekuphequluleni ubufakazi obungokobuchwepheshe. Nokho, ukuqulwa kwejaji kunikeza izinzuzo ezikhethekile: bafaka inzuzo ezivamile, izindinganiso zomphakathi, kanye nokuhlola okuzimele ngokumelene nephutha lokwahlulela. Ukuhlolwa [FLT: 0] [[FLT][FLD] [[FLT] [[FLT]] [[3] kusikisela ukuthi amajaji namajaji ngokuvamile kuvumelana ngemiphumela ezicini eziningi, nakuba izibalo zithambekele ekuzini kwabantu ngabanye. Ukukhetha phakathi kokulimala nokuqulwa kwebhini, kodwa ngokuvamile kuxhomeke ekusetshenziswe kwendlela yesinqumo esibahlulelwayo esithandwayo.

Umphakathi Nokubekwa Kwemithetho Kwesimiso Sobulungisa

Ukulunga okubonakala kulungile kokuqulwa kwecala kuthinta ukuthembela komphakathi ngokuqondile ezinkantolo. Uma amajaji ebonakala enikeza imiphumela elungile, kuyaqiniswa ukuba semthethweni. Ngokuhlukile, izinqumo eziphikisanayo zenza kube ukulahlwa kwamaphoyisa ekubulaleni okukhulu [1] kubangela ukuvunywa kwemithetho nokufunwa kwenguquko. Izimiso zomthetho zincike emvumeni nasehlonisweni; ngaphandle kokuqiniseka komphakathi, izinkantolo zisengozini yokungahambisani namathuluzi okucindezela. Icala likaJury, ngokuhilela abantu abavamile ekwahluleleni, ligcina lokho kusemthethweni ngokunika izakhamuzi isigxobo esimisweni. Izikhalo zibonisa ukuthi abantu abakhonza enkantolo baye bahlonipha kakhulu inqubo engokomthetho, ngisho noma bengavumelani nesinqumo.

Izinselele Nezinguquko Zanamuhla

Isimiso sabahluleli sibhekene nezinsongo ezingathi sína ekhulwini lama - 21, kusukela ekuncipheni kwemali kuya ekuthambekeleni kwemithetho esemthethweni.

Izinga Lokuqulwa Kwamacala Asebuntwaneni Elikhohlakele

Enye yezinselele ezibaluleke kakhulu ukwehla kwenani lamacala abahluleli. Esimisweni sikahulumeni, inani lamacala ezakhamuzi namajaji obugebengu liye lehla ngamaphesenti angaphezu kuka-60 kusukela ngawo-1980, lishoshoshozelwa ukuncenga nokufaka umthetho ophoqelelwe. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi “ukuqulwa kwecala” kululaza indima engokomthetho-mthetho yabahluleli. Ngokuphendula, ezinye izifunda ziye zabeka izisulu zokwandisa amanani okuqulwa, kuyilapho ezinye zineminxenxela phambili ezimisweni zejaji ukuze zenze inkonzo ibe lula oluncithayo.

Ubuchwepheshe buphakamisa futhi izinselele: imithombo yezokuxhumana yenza kube nzima ukuqinisekisa ukungakhethi kwabahluleli, njengoba abahluleli bengase bachayeke ekwazisweni okungaqondile noma baxoxe ngecala kuyi-intanethi. Izinkantolo manje zinikeza izigijimi eziyala njalo ukuba zigweme imithombo yezokuxhumana, futhi ezinye izindawo zidinga ukuqalwa kwamajaji emacaleni aphakeme.

Izinguquko Zokuthuthukisa Ukumelela Nokunciphisa I - bias

Ukuze kuxazululwe ukungalingani kwegebe elikhethwe abahluleli, izifunda eziningi ziye zalungisa izinselele ezizihlenga. Ngokwesibonelo, iZwe laseWashington lazisusa zonke izinselele ngo-2020, lilandela ukutuswa kwenkantolo ephakeme. Ezinye izifundazwe ziye zathatha imithetho eqinile efuna abameli ukuba banikeze izizathu zomjaho-neno-zobuzwe ngenxa yezinselele. Ngaphezu kwalokho, imizamo yokwandisa amadamu amajaji [1] ngokusebenzisa izitampunde, ivumela i-injini yamajaji ukuba ibuze, kanye nenkokhelo eyandayo (ama-aim) ukuze kwande izinhlanga nokuhlanganyela.

Ukuqeqeshwa okuphelele kwabahluleli nabameli kuvame kakhulu, futhi ezinye izinkantolo manje zinikeza abahluleli iziyalezo ngokugwema ubandlululo nokucabangela imibono. Ngokwesibonelo, iziyalezo zejaji laseCalifornia, zicela ngokucacile abameleli bamajaji ukuba bazihlole ngokwabo ubandlululo. Izifunda eziningi ziye zazama futhi “ukukhetha okungaboni” kwabahluleli, lapho ukwaziswa okuphathelene nabantu kugodlelwa khona abameli ukunciphisa ithonya lemibono evamile.

Isiphetho

Ukuqulwa kwecala kungaphezulu kakhulu kunesinqumo somthetho-sisekelo sokukhipha izivumelwano; kuyisibopho somthetho-sisekelo sokuhlukanisa izakhamuzi ezivamile. Ngokuzinzisa ezisenkabeni yenqubo yokuzimela, amajaji aqinisekisa ukuthi ubulungisa nokulingana akuyona imicabango kodwa kunezici ezingokoqobo. Ukuziphendukela okungokomlando kweqembu labahluleli (ngokusuka kumajaji angenkathi ephakathi) kusuka kumaqiniso akhona ("aveza ukulwa okuqhubekayo kokulinganisela amandla nokuvikela amalungelo. Inhlangano iqhubeke isebenza njengezinselele ezibaluleke kakhulu zezeluleko lohlanga, ukuncipha kwemingcele yezehlulelo, nokuncishiswa kwenani lezentengiselwano yezentengiselwano, amandla ahlala njalo esimiso sokulunga kwezehlulelwa kwezehlulelo kodwa ahlala esemandleni aso ehlwini enkantolo. Njengezinkantolo nezishaya-mthetho zezeluleko lokulungisa izinqubo zokulungisa izigwebo.