Igatsha lokwahlulela likahulumeni limi njengelungu elinakekela amalungelo nenkululeko yomuntu siqu, lisebenza njengensika eyisisekelo yokubusa kwentando yeningi. Igunya lalo lokuchaza imithetho, ukubukeza izenzo zobuphathi, nokushaya umthetho wezeziqu zombuso, futhi liqinisekisa ukuthi alikho igatsha likahulumeni elisebenza ngaphezu kwemingcele ebekwe yizincwadi ezisunguliwe. Ngaphandle kwezincwadi eziqinile nezizimele, amalungelo abekwe eMthethweni wezomthetho akhona ephepheni, asengozini yemiqondo yezikhulu zezombangazwe noma yesikhulu sezezezezwe. Lesi sihloko sihlola imisebenzi egxekayo ebucayi yegatsha lokwahlulela, iminikelo yalo engokomlando evikela inkululeko, futhi izinselele ezibhekene ngokomthetho ehleli engokomthetho.

Isisekelo Samandla Okwahlulela

Amandla ejaji likahulumeni amiswa eSiphakamiso III soMthetho-sisekelo wase-United States, isikhulu sokwahlulela eNkantolo Ephakeme nezinkantolo eziphansi njengeSishaya-mthetho ezingamisa futhi zimise. Abahleli bahlela ngamabomu ikomiti ukuba ibe yigatsha elincane kakhulu lezombangazwe, banikeze abahluleli bezwe ukumiswa kokuphila kwabo konke phakathi nokuziphatha okuhle nokuvikela iholo labo ekuncipheni imingcele. Lokhu kuvumelana nethonya elivamile kwakuhloselwe ukuvumela abahluleli ukuba benze izinqumo ezisekelwe emthethweni nasezimpimpilweni zomthetho noma ezichaza umthetho wezombangazwe. Isakhiwo sejaji elingumthetho wezwe noma isikhululo sezezwe.

Izehlulelo zikahulumeni, lapho zisebenza ngaphansi komthetho-mthetho nezimiso zazo, zenza imisebenzi yezemvume ezingeni lombuso. Zichaza imithetho kahulumeni, izimpikiswano ze-funo, futhi zivikela amalungelo aqinisekiswe ngemithetho-mthetho nezindleko zamalungelo. Izinkantolo eziningi zikahulumeni zibuye zihlole izahlulelo zemithetho yezwe nezenzo zezikhulu, nakuba izinga lalowo mbuso lihluka ngokwamandla. Isimiso senkantolo esimbaxa-mbili ($federal nesifundazwe) nezindawo ezihlukene zokufuna izakhamuzi ukuba zifune ukuvuselelwa kwelungelo lazo.

Ukuzimela Nokulandisa

Inkululeko yokwahlulela ayisho ukungabi nacala eliphelele. Amajaji amele ahlonishwe ngenxa yobugebengu obukhulu kanye nokungaqondi kahle, nakuba lamandla engasetshenziswa kancane. Igatsha lokwahlulela futhi liveza iziqondiso zalo siqu zokuziphatha nezimiso ezingaphakathi. Amajaji angathi abhekane nokhetho olugciniwe noma izinqubo zokuVumela ngezikhathi ezithile, adala ukulinganisela okubucayi phakathi kokulandisa kokhetho nesidingo sokwenza isinqumo ngokungakhethi. I-jaji elizimele ngempela libalulekile ekuvikeleni amalungelo amancane ngokumelene nobushiqela − umsebenzi omisiwe ongenakukwenziwa ngamagatsha akhethiwe abheka umuzwa othandwayo.

Umshini Wokubukeza Ukwahlulela

Ukubukeza kokwahlulela kuyisisekelo samandla omthetho omthetho ovikela amalungelo nenkululeko. Okokuqala i-Mahluleli omkhulu uJohn Marshall embonini wophawu (1803] icala le-Marbury v. , lemfundiso inika amandla ezinkantolo ukuze zihlole imithetho nezenzo zokuphatha zokuvumelana nomthetho-sisekelo. Uma umthetho noma isenzo sitholakala singavumelani nomthetho, izinkantolo zingasimemezela size futhi zenqabe ukusiphoqelela. Lamandla adlulela kuwo wonke amazinga kahulumeni ($_ffederal, simo, isifundazwe, futhi indawo isebenza emithethweni, iziqondiso zezikhulu, futhi ngisho nemithetho yezomthetho esemthethweni.

Izinga lokuhlola kokwahlulela liye lakhula ngokuhamba kwesikhathi ukuze lingahlanganisi nje umbhalo woMthetho-sisekelo kuphela kodwa futhi namalungelo aboniswa yisimo nomlando wayo. Ngokwesibonelo, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yaqaphela ilungelo lomthetho-sisekelo lokuzifihla emacaleni anjenge Griswold v. Izinqulu zeConnecticut[[FL:1] [1965] [[FLT]] [FLT] [RO] v. [[[FLT][FL][FLY][F][FLY]][3] [10] [773]]), nakuba igama elithi "prigracy" lingaveli kumthetho-mthetho- sisekelo. Lezinqulumo zibonisa indlela ukuvumela umthetho wemithetho ezimweni ezintsha, ukuvikela inkululeko okungase kungasho ukuthi abakhi abakhi befontile ngokuqondile kodwa okubalulekile emphakathini okhululekileyo.

Imingcele Ekubukezeni Ukwahlulela

Izinkantolo azibukisi ngokuhlola kokwahlulela ngokungenangqondo. Izimfundiso eziningi zilinganisela lapho futhi zingenza khona izinkantolo zihlule imithetho. Imfuneko yecala noma yesinqumo ivimbela izinkantolo ekukhipheni imibono engokomthetho. Lemida idinga abaqondisi ukuba babonise ukulimala okusobala okungaboniswa esinyatheloni esiqinile futhi bakwazi ukubuyiselwa ngenkululeko yokwahlulela. Imfundiso yezombangazwe iqinisekisa ukuthi ezinye izimpikiswano zixazululwe kahle ngamagatsha akhethiwe futhi azikufanelekeli ukunquma komthetho. Lemikhawulo iqinisekisa ukuthi izinkantolo zihlonipha indima yazo efanele ekuhlukaneni kwemibuso kuyilapho zisanikeza i-ambuya elungelweni labo abanelungelo lokwahlulela elisongelwa ngempela.

Ukuvikela Amalungelo Omphakathi Nenkululeko

Kuwo wonke umlando waseMelika, igatsha lokwahlulela beliphambili ekuthuthukiseni amalungelo omphakathi. Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme v. Ibhodi yemfundo (11954]) yagumbuqela imfundiso "ehlukene kodwa elinganayo" futhi yamemezela ukuthi ihlukanisa ubuhlanga ezikoleni zesizwe ngaphandle komthetho we-Orticus Act. Lesinqumo saholela ekuncishisweni kwezindawo zokuhlala zomphakathi, izithutho, nezinye izimbulunga zokuphila. Nakuba ukusungula izakhiwo kwabhekana nokuphikisa, iNkantolo yezokuziphatha negunya elingokomthetho kwanikeza isisekelo somthetho olandelayo onjengomthetho we-Ovinial Rights Act of 1964 kanye nomthetho kaVoright Rights Act ka-196565.

Embusweni wokwahlulela kobugebengu, inkathi yeWarren Court yaveza izinqumo eziguqulayo ezandisa amalungelo abamangalelwa. Gideon v. Wainfright (1963]) yamisa ilungelo lokululeka abamangalelwa emacaleni kahulumeni, ifuna ukuba kunikezwe abameli abangakwazi ukubanika abamangalelwa abanecala elibi. [[FLT]] Miranda v. [196]] kwadingeka amaphoyisa ukuba atshele abamangalelwa amalungelo abo ukuba bathule futhi abe nommeli okhona phakathi nokuphenywa kwecala. Lezi zinqumo ziqinisekisa ukuthi ngisho nabantu abangenakukwazi ukukhokhwazwa. [FLT]

Muva nje, inkantolo iqaphele ilungelo elingokomthetho lomshado ofanayo, inqanda ukuvinjelwa kwe-LGBTQ+ abantu ngabanye. ku-Obergefell v. Hodges (2015], iNkantolo Ephakeme yaqaphela ilungelo elingokomthetho lomshado ofanayo, ukuvimbela uhulumeni ukuvimbela ukukhishwa kwemisebenzi esusa imibhangqwana efanayo emishadweni. [[FLT:]]]BOSROCY v. Comment [[FLT:]][20]], iNkantolo ikholelwa ukuthi iSihloko seSivumelo VII selungelo lika-Omthetho ka-On ka- 1964 uvimbela ukucwaswa kwemisebenzi esekelwe ekuziphatheleleni noma ebulilinini. Lezinqulweni zesivumelwano se-Geneticismism ezihambisana ne-social.

Ukufuna Amalungelo Nokuhlanganyela Kwezombangazwe

Ijaji liphinde lilondoloze ilungelo lokuvota, eliyisisekelo sesimiso sokubusa ngentando yeningi esisebenzayo. Icala elinjenge Shelby County v. Homer (2013) liqokomisa impikiswano eqhubekayo ngobukhulu bamalungelo okuvota kukahulumeni. Nakuba iNkantolo yabulala ilungiselelo eliyinhloko le-Voting Rights Act kulelocala, iye yasekela ezinye izivikelo futhi yaqeda imithetho yokuvota engekho emthethweni wokuvota ezinqumeni ezilandelayo. Inkantolo iyaqhubeka iveza izimpikiswano ezikhona ngokuphathelene nemithetho yokuvota engokomthetho engekho emthethweni, izimfuneko zokubonisa, nokufinyelela i-bolocation, iqinisekisa ukuthi izakhamuzi ezifanelekayo zingahlanganyela ekuvoteni ngaphandle kokuzithwesa.

Ijaji Njengephenya Egunyeni Eliphethe Nelemithetho

Isimiso sokuhlola nokulinganisela kuxhomeke kumsebenzi wegatsha ngalinye. Igatsha lokwahlulela lisebenza njengenhlolo - hlolo enzima kuwo womabili amagatsha aphetheyo nawabemthetho. Lapho uMkhandlu umisa imithetho ephula amalungelo omthetho, izinkantolo zingawashaya. Lapho umongameli ekhipha iziyalezo zesikhulu ezingaphezulu kwe-statory noma umthetho, izinkantolo zingagunyaza ukugcinwa kwazo. Lamandla aboniswa ngokuphawulekayo ku-United States v. Nixon [19974], lapho iNkathi ehlangene neNkakhulu yayaleza uMongameli uRichard Nixon ukuba akhiphe iziteshishishi zecala lomthetho, ziphinde ukuthi akukho muntu, ngisho nomongameli, ungaphezulu komthetho.

Ngemva kokuhlasela okungu-9/11, inkantolo yabukeza izenzo eziningana ezathathwa igatsha eliphethe egameni lokhuseleko lwesizwe. HAmdi v. Rumsfeld [2004], iNkantolo yathi i-U.S. izakhamuzi ziboshelwe njengeqembu elilwayo kumelwe zinikwe ithuba lokuncintisana nokuvalelwa kwazo phambi komenzi wesinqumo esingathathi hlangothi. [[FLT:]] Boumediece v. Bush [2003]], iNkantolo yeSishaya-mgomo sesizwe sempi esithathile. Lezi zinqumo zibonisa ukuthi ngisho nangezikhathi zenhlekelele yezembubhiyo yeze-bukhompulji.

Imingcele Yamandla Emithetho

Ijaji libuye limise imingcele yegunya lomthetho. S v. Chachaha [1903], iNkantolo Ephakeme yashaya i-padstice vento, indlela iSishaya uKhongolo esingaguqula ngayo izenzo zegatsha ngaphandle kokushaya umthetho omusha. INkantolo yathi amaveto aphula i-bidaralism nezimfuneko zeSiphakamiso I, ifuna ukuba noma isiphi isenzo ngempoqo yomthetho sidluliswe yizombili izindlu zeSishaya-Rhulumente futhi idluliselwe kumongameli. Lokhu kuqinisekisa ukuvikelwa kwezakhiwo ngaphandle kokushaya umthetho futhi kuvimbele inqubo evamile yokulawula amandla ekwandiswa kwemithetho ukuze kwandise amalungelo abantu ngabanye.

Ukufinyelela Ubulungisa Nokulingana Ngaphambi KoMthetho

Isithembiso sobulungisa obulinganayo ngaphansi komthetho asisho lutho uma izakhamuzi zingakwazi ukufinyelela izinkantolo ukuze zilwele amalungelo azo. Isithiyo esiphawulekayo sokungena sisala, ikakhulukazi kubantu abathola abantu abaphansi nabanemiphakathi enemibala ephansi. Ilungelo lokululeka elisungulwe Gideon v. IWainwright [ isebenza kuphela ezinkantolo zobugebengu; ezindabeni zomphakathi, akukho lungelo lomthetho-mmeli okhululekile. Ngenxa yalokho, abantu abaningi babhekene nokuxoshwa, inkongozelelwano yezimali, ubudlova basekhaya, noma ukulahlekelwa kwelungelo lokugcina abantwana kumele ukuba babhekane noma balahlekelwe usuku lwabo enkantolo ngokuphelele.

Imizamo yokuthuthukisa ukufinyelela kobulungisa ihlanganisa izinhlelo zokusiza ezixhaswa uhulumeni nohulumeni, izimfuneko ze-probono ezisemthethweni zabameli, nemithombo yosizo enikezwa yizinkantolo. I-Real Services Services, eyasungulwa yi-Congress Congress, izimali zomphakathi ku-Melika ehhlawulwa kaphansi. Izinkantolo eziningi zikahulumeni manje ziphethe amathekisi ngezindlela, iziyalezo, namavidiyo okwaziswa. Naphezu kwale mizamo, isidingo esingaphezu kwemithombo ekhona. Umbiko wamashumi amabili222 wathola ukuthi i-American Association ethola usizo oluphansi oluthola usizo olusemthethweni lwezinkinga zabo ezingokomthetho ezingu-92%.

Ukwehluka Esimisweni Sobulungisa

Isivikelo esilinganayo asidingi nje ukufinyelela ezinkantolo kuphela kodwa futhi ukuphathwa ngendlela efanayo. Ukuhlukana kwezinhlanga nohlanga kuyaqhubeka kuzo zonke izigaba zesimiso sobulungisa sobugebengu, kusukela ekuboshweni nasekumangalelweni nasekugwetshweni. Igatsha lokwahlulela linendima ekusingatheni lokhu kuhlukana ngokukhipha izinguquko, iziyalezo zejaji, kanye nokwengamela ukuziphatha komshushisi. Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme Batson v. Kentucky [1986] [1986]) inqabela ukucwaswa kwezinhlanga ngokukhethwa kweqembu labahluleli, nakuba ukugcinwa kwemithetho kuye kwaba yinselele. Izinyathelo zamuva zenkantolo zokuqeqesha ukucwasa okungathyo kwabahluleli kanye neqoqo lemininingwane yezimiso zokuhlukanisa isimiso seze-octive.

Izinqumo Eziwuphawu Ezathonya Umphakathi WaseMelika

Ngalé kwalezi zimo esezixoxwe kakade, ezinye izinqumo zokwahlulela eziningi ziye zawubumba kakhulu umphakathi waseMelika. Lovang v. Virginia (1967) yalahla imithetho kahulumeni evimbela ukukhishwa kwemishado, iqinisekisa ukuthi umshado uyilungelo eliyisisekelo elingenakuvinjelwa izinhlanga. Roe v. [[FLT][FLT][[FLT]] [7773]) yaqaphela ilungelo lomthetho lokukhipha isisu, ibangela amashumi eminyaka empikiswano yezombangazwe nengokomthetho eqhubeka nalemini. Imiphumela ehlangene.[FFLT][FFLT][FFFLT] [FF:5] [0] Ukuvikela komphakathi wezentengo yezombangazwe, ukukhipha umthetho wezombangazwe, ukubuyisela izivumelwano zezentengosi yemithetho. Izentevo ngayinye yalegi ngokomthetho eveza imiphumela eveza imiphumela ephethe ebanzi yalenzayo. [i yezenteyibhiyo.]

Ukusabela Ngokumelene Nezenzo Zesibindi

Isinqumo sejaji ngezinye izikhathi siqhubeka kancane kancane, sakha isibonelo. Ezinye izikhathi, simemezela izimiso ezibanzi ezihlanganisa ama-sethi angokomthetho akhona. I-Brown isinqumo sasiwukwehla okuphawulekayo [ ukushiyeka komthetho]. Ferguson[[FLT] [[966] [18] [i-966], eseke yagunyaza ukumiswa kwemithetho. Ukuzimisela kweNkantolo ukugumbuqela ngokwayo kuye kwaba yindaba yempikiswano. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi ukuvinjelwa kokwahlulela kuyadingeka ukuze kulondolozwe ukuhleleka nokuhlonipha umthetho, kuyilapho ukusekela ukuguqula izinkantolo njengethuluzi elidingekile lokunqoba ukuphatha imithetho yemithetho noma ukulinganisela. Ukulinganisela phakathi kokuzinza okuhlala phakathi komthetho womthetho.

Izinselele Zangesikhathi Esidlule Ezibhekene Negatsha Lokwahlulela

Igatsha lokwahlulela libhekene nezinselele eziningana eziphawulekayo enkathini yanamuhla. Ukubekwa kwemithetho yokwahlulela kuye kwaba yindawo eshayelelayo kwezombangazwe zaseMelika. Izimpi zeSigele zokuqinisekisa izinkantolo Eziphakeme nabahluleli abaphansi ziye zakhula ngokuya ziphikisana, futhi ngokuvamile abanyunyana bakhethwa ngenxa yokuhlelwa kwabo okucatshangelwayo komqondo kunokuhlelwa kwemithetho noma ubuchwepheshe. Ukusetshenziswa kwe-Religilbuster, ukususwa kwe-palbuster yenkantolo ephansi, nempikiswano enqabeni yeSigebelo sokwenqaba kweNdlulo ukuba kubekwe icala kuMahluleli Merrick Garland ngo-2016 kuye kwayilahla yonke inqubo engokwesiko yokuqinisekisa.

Ukuthembela komphakathi enkantolo yezomthetho kuye kwehla eminyakeni yamuva, njengoba ukuncishiswa kwezigebengu okuhlukanisayo kudlulela ekuboneni izinkantolo. Ngokwenhlolo yeGallup, amaphesenti amaMelika achaza "inani elikhulu" noma "impela" ukuthembela eNkantolo Ephakeme kwehla kusuka ku 56% ngo 2000 kuya ku-40% ku-2020. Lokhu kuncishiswa kwethemba kusongela ukuba semthethweni kwejaji, njengoba ekugcineni amandla alo axhomeke ekuvumeleni komphakathi nakwamanye amagatsha ukuvumelana nezinqumo zalo.

Ukupakisha Nezinguquko Enkantolo

Izinhloso zokwandisa ubukhulu beNkantolo Ephakeme .Izihlongozo zokuthi inkantolo ipakishelwe ngokuvame ukubizwa ngokuthi ukufakwa kwecala enkantolo, ziye zathola ukuvalwa kwemithetho yezombangazwe esele ngenxa yalokho abanye abakubheka njengezikhulu ezithathelwana ngokungemthetho. Ukufakwa kwenkantolo kungaguqula isimo somthetho futhi kungabangela umjikelezo wokuziphindiselela kumaKhomishane esikhathi esizayo. Ezinye iziphakamiso zenguquko zihlanganisa imingcele ehlala njalo yamajaji, inkathi yokuthatha umhlalaphansi engokomthetho, nesimiso esibophekayo sokuziphatha. Lemibono iphakamisa imibuzo ejulile ngokulinganisela okufanelekile phakathi kokuzimela isahlulelo nokuziphendulela idemo yentando yeningi.

Indima Yesikhathi Esizayo Yengoma Yomculo

Njengoba ubuchwepheshe bushintsha zonke izici zomphakathi, ijaji lizobhekana nemibuzo emisha mayelana nokuzifihla, ukukhuluma ngokukhululekile, namalungelo empahla ngenkathi yobuchwepheshe. ISichibiyelo Sesine sokuvikela ekuphenyeni okungacabangeli nokuquleka kumelwe kuvumelane nokuqapha kobuchwepheshe, ukuqoqwa kokwaziswa kwezinkampani ezizimele, nokusetshenziswa kokuhlakanipha kokwenziwa ekuqikelweni komthetho. Icala elinjengo Carpeent v. United States [208], okwakuthi amaphoyisa ngokuvamile adinga isiqinisekiso sokuthola ukwaziswa kocingo, kusikisela ukuthi izinkantolo ziyaqhubeka ukusebenzisa izimiso zomthetho zezobuchwepheshe obusha.

Ukuhwebelana kwembulunga yonke kuletha izinselele. Umthetho wezizwe nezivumelwano zihlangana kakhulu nomthetho-sisekelo wasekhaya. Izinkantolo kumelwe zinqume izinga imithombo yangaphandle engokomthetho echaza umthetho-sisekelo − impikiswano ephikisanayo ehlukanisa amajaji. Ukubaluleka okukhula kwamalungelo abafuduki, izinqubo zamalungelo abantu emhlabeni wonke, nezimpikiswano ezinqamule imingcele kuyodinga ukuba abahluleli bahlanganyele nezimiso zomthetho ngalé kwemingcele ye-U.S.

Ukuhlanganisa Amalungelo Nenkululeko

Umbhalo womthetho uhlala ungashintshi kakhulu, kodwa amalungelo awuvikelayo ayaqhubeka eguquka. Amaqiniso afana nelungelo lokungena endaweni ehlanzekile, ilungelo lokungena kuyi-intanethi, nelungelo lokuzimela ngokwawo ngokwe-i-intanethi yezobuchwepheshe obusha ngokunokwenzeka afika phambi kwezinkantolo. Indima yejaji ekuvikeleni lamalungelo akhulayo ixhomeke ekuqinisekiseni ukuthi amajaji achaza amagama abanzi oMthetho-mthetho-sisekelo (""""""""asenquleni yenqubo, isivikelo esilinganayo, i-inkululeko(in) yokukhanya kokushintsha izimo ze-societal. I-judiary ehlala izimele, engenacala, futhi esabela ezidingweni zomphakathi ohlukeneyo kuyodingeka ekuqinisekiseni ukuthi isithembiso somthetho wenkululeko nobulungisa kuzo zonke izizukulwane ezisanenzuzo.

Isiphetho

Igatsha lokwahlulela liyisivikelo esiyinhloko samalungelo nenkululeko ngaphakathi kwesimiso somthetho-sisekelo waseMelika. Ngokuhlola kokwahlulela, izinkantolo ziqinisekisa ukuthi izenzo zomthetho nezokuphatha zivumelana noMthetho-sisekelo, zihlole ukusetshenziswa kabi kwamandla, futhi zinikeze abantu i-unton ukuze balwe namalungelo abo. Izinqumo ze-WWGARP zisuka ku [[FL:0] Mathbury v. Madison ku [FLT] [FL:2] ku-'unyaka ka-Obergfel v. Hodges[ zibonisa ikhono le-judiary's' lokuthuthukisa ubulungisa nokulingana, ngisho nakubhekene nokuphikisa kwezombangazwe. Nokho, ukuphumelela kwe-judia kuxhomeke ekulondolozeni ukukhululeka kwayo, ukukhokha kobulungisa kuzo zonke izakhamuzi, ukuthembana nokulondoloza ukukhokha kokwe-wonke-wonke-wonke, ukuguqula ukuguqula kwezentengo zeze yezentengo yeze yezentengo: lapho kusekela ukubusa kwezelele ukubusa kwezelele ukubusa kwezentelelo yeqiniso

Ukuze ufunde okwengeziwe, bheka imibono engokomthetho yamacawa ephawu oludala ne [FLT]] U.S. izinkantolo zewebhusayithi[. [[FLT]] Soundme Court of the United States inikeza ukufinyelela ezinqumweni zamanje nezimpikiswano zomlomo. Ingxoxo ejulile mayelana nokufinyelela ekwahluleleni, thintana nemithombo yezosizo olungokomthetho [[FLT][FLT][FLT]][FLT]