Isisekelo Esingokomlando Sokubukeza Kokwahlulela

Imfundiso yokubukeza kokwahlulela ayishiwo ngokucacile eMthethweni-sisekelo wase-U.S., nokho, imvelaphi yayo ibuyela emuva emasikweni omthetho nasemakoloni aseNgilandi. Izinkantolo zakuqala zaseMelika ngezikhathi ezithile zalahla imithetho kahulumeni eyayingqubuzana nemithetho-sisekelo kahulumeni, kodwa amandla okushaya imithetho kahulumeni awazange avivinywe kuze kube yiRepublic yokuqala.

Icala eliyinhloko elamisa ukubukezwa kokwahlulela eqophelweni likahulumeni kwakuyi- Marbury v. Madison [1803]. Linqunywe uMahluleli Omkhulu uJohn Marshall, icala lavela ekuphazamisekeni kwezombangazwe kokhetho lukamongameli ka-1800. UWilliam Marbury, u-patroli omisiwe kaMongameli John Adams, unobhala wezwe James Madison ngenxa yokuhluleka ukukhipha imvume yakhe njengobulungisa bokuthula. Umbono kaMarshall wakugwema ngokuqondisisa ukuphikisana negatsha eliphethe ngomthetho owenziwe ngaphansi kweSiphakamiso sika-1789, kwaye wakhuliswa ngenxa yokubusa kweNkakhulu. Esombuluko, ezintathu zaze zavunyelwa ukuba kwenziwe umthetho ohlala njalo: ku-Marhribese.

  • UMthetho - sisekelo ungumthetho ophakeme wezwe, obopha wonke amagatsha kahulumeni.
  • Ijaji linegunya lokuchaza uMthetho - sisekelo nokumemezela izenzo zoMkhandlu noma ukungabi nalutho okuphethe lapho kungqubuzana nawo.
  • Amandla okuhlaziya ukwahlulela awumsebenzi ongokwemvelo wezinkantolo, obalulekile ekulondolozeni ukuphakama komthetho - sisekelo.

Ngaphambi kwe-Marbury, izinkantolo zikahulumeni eziningana zase zibukeze kakade umthetho wombuso. Ngokwesibonelo, Commonweal v. Caton (1782], inkantolo ephakeme kakhulu yaseVirginia yasikisela amandla okuqeda imithetho. Kodwa ukugcizelela okuqinisekile kweNkantolo ePhakeme eMarbury kwanikeza imfundiso amandla esizwe futhi kwamisa isigaba emakhulwini amabili eminyaka esimiso somthetho-mthetho-siseko i-jurisprudence.

Izihloko Eziphambili Nezimpikiswano Zangaphambili

Umqondo wokuthi izinkantolo zingaqeda imithetho engalungile noma engavumelani nemithetho yezomthetho wango1787 waphikisana noMthetho-sisekelo. U-Alexander Hamilton waphikisa ku- Fateralist No. ukuthi ijaji liyoba “igatsha eliyingozi” ngoba“ alinathonya phezu kwenkemba noma kwesikhwama.” UHamilton wayecabanga ukuthi izinkantolo zingumgcini woMthetho-sisekelo, eqaphela ukuthi“ lapho intando yendlu yendlu, imemezelwe ngemithetho yayo, imelene nalokho kwabantu, kushiwo ukuthi eMthethweni womthetho, abahluleli kufanele balawulwe yikho." Lo mbono awuzange uhambe ungena ndawo. Aweli. Awerdentifria awedentiowesabi.

Indlela Ukubukeza Kokwahlulela Okusebenza Ngayo

Ukubukeza ukwahlulela akuwona amandla okwahlulela asetshenziswa yibo bonke abantu ababodwa. Kusebenza ngezinqubo ezivamile zokunikeza imvume. Icala kumelwe lilethwe ngokufanele, futhi kumelwe kube khona impikiswano engokoqobo. Izinkantolo zisebenzisa izindlela eziqondile lapho zihlola ukuqina kwemithetho nezenzo.

Izindinganiso Zokubukeza

Kuye ngokuthi umthetho noma isinyathelo sinjani, izinkantolo zisebenzisa amazinga ahlukahlukene okuhlola:

  • Rational Basiss Review: Indinganiso ehloniphekayo kakhulu. Umthetho ubhekwa njengomthetho-sisekelo, futhi umphikisi kumelwe abonise ukuthi umthetho awuhlobene ngokunengqondo nesithakazelo sikahulumeni ongokomthetho. Lokhu kusebenza emthethoni wezezomnotho nowezenhlalo omningi.
  • I-Scrutiny ephakathi: isetshenziselwa ukuhlela ngokusekelwe ebulilini noma ekungangeni ngokomthetho. Umthetho kumelwe uhlobene kakhulu nesithakazelo esibalulekile sikahulumeni.
  • Strict Scrutiny: Indinganiso eqinile kakhulu. Isebenzisa imithetho ethwesa umthwalo amalungelo ayisisekelo (njengenkululeko yokukhuluma noma yokuvota) noma amaqembu asekelwe ohlangeni, enkolweni, noma ezweni. Uhulumeni kumelwe abonise ukuthi umthetho ufeza isithakazelo esiphoqelelayo futhi uhloselwe ukufinyelela wona.

Lezizindinganiso ziqondisa amajaji ekunqumeni ukuthi umthetho uwephula umthetho-sisekelo yini. Awuphelele, kodwa unikeza uhlelo lokwenza izinqumo eziqinile.

Inqubo Yokulahlwa Komthetho - sisekelo

Lapho inkantolo kahulumeni izwa inselele yomthetho - sisekelo, lenqubo ivele ngalendlela:

  1. [ Ukuhamba nokufaka: I-pasttiff kumele ifake inxeba elithile elibangelwa umthetho noma isenzo sikahulumeni esiphula ilungelo lomthetho-sisekelo.
  2. Incazelo nobufakazi: Kwezinye izimo, ubufakazi ngenjongo noma ithonya lomthetho buqoqwa. Izinselele zobuso, inkantolo ibheka umbhalo womthetho; ngoba izinselele ezicushwayo, zihlola amaqiniso aqondile.
  3. Iziphakamiso kanye nokufushaniswa: Imikhosi ifaka izimpikiswano zomthetho ngokucaphuna umbhalo womthetho-sisekelo, isibonelo, kanye nomongo womlando.
  4. Impikiswano: Abameli baveza icala labo phambi kwabahluleli, ababuza imibuzo ehlola ukuqonda nohlohlohlo lwezinhlangothi.
  5. [ Ukuhlanganisa noMqondo:[ Abahluleli bayahlangana ukuze baxoxe ngecala. Umbono wabaningi (noma ubuningi) uchaza ukucabanga. Ukwenzeka nokuphikisana kwemibono kunikeza imibono ehlukile.
  6. Icebo: Uma umthetho uwiswa, inkantolo isho ukuthi uyize futhi awuphoqelelwe. Kwezinye izimo, inkantolo ingakhipha umyalo omelene nokugcinwa kwamandla noma ukuguqula umthetho ngokuhlaziya “ukuhlola.”

Kubalulekile ukuqaphela ukuthi ukubukezwa kokwahlulela akulinganiselwe eNkantolo Ephakeme. Izinkantolo ezingaphansi zikahulumeni ziqhuba njalo ukubukezwa komthetho-mthetho, futhi izinqumo zazo zifanele zidluliselwe. Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme kuphela esinqunywayo ngaphandle kokuba uMthetho-sisekelo ulungiswe noma iNkantolo kamuva ithathe izigwebo ngokwayo.

Izinqumo Eziphawulekayo Ezathonya IMelika

Izibalo ziye zaba isisekelo sokushintsha kwezenhlalo nemithetho. Amanye amacala aye andisa amalungelo abantu ngabanye, amanye aye aphanjwa uhulumeni ngokulinganiselwe, futhi ambalwa aye agxekwa kakhulu ngokuthi afinyelela ngokweqile.

Izinkinga Eziyisisekelo Ngalé KweMarbury

  • McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): INkantolo yasekela ukuqina komthetho-mthetho weBank yesibili yase-United States, imisa ukuthi uMkhandlu uye wasikisela amandla angaphezu kwalawo acacile asohlwini (umbhalo “obalulekile nofanele”). Icala futhi lagcizelela ubukhulu bukahulumeni phezu kwesenzo sombuso.
  • Gibbons v. Ogden (1824): Ichaza kakhulu amandla oMkhandlu ukulawula ezohwebo zezwe, ibeka isisekelo segunya lokulawula uhulumeni phezu kwezomnotho.
  • Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857): Ukusetshenziswa okuyinhlekelele kokubukeza kokwahlulela. IJaji eliyinhloko uRoger Taney wamemezela ukuthi amaMelika aseAfrika ayengezona izakhamuzi nokuthi uMkhandlu wawungenakubunqabela ubugqila emasimini. Isinqumo sashisa kakhulu ukucindezela kwesizwe futhi sagumbuqelwa ngokuphumelelayo iziNguquko ze-Reconstrument.

Amalungelo Omphakathi Nenkululeko

  • Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Ngokubodwa kwaqeda ukuhlukaniswa kwezinhlanga ezikoleni zomphakathi, kudlula kakhulu ku-“enza kube kanye” imfundiso ye Pnetic v. Ferguson [1896]). Ukubusa kwasetshenziswa ubufakazi obungokwesayensi yezesayensi yezinhlanga ukubonisa ukuthi i-sociology inqaba ngokuphelele.
  • Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): Wathi iSichibiyelo sesithupha sifuna ukuba kunikezwe iseluleko kubamangalelwa abangenamandla okukhokhela ummeli. Lokhu kwaguqula isimiso sokwahlulela kobugebengu.
  • Miranda v. Arizona (1966): Amaphoyisa afunekayo ukutshela abasolwayo ngamalungelo abo ukuba bangathuli futhi baluleke. “Izixwayiso zeMiranda” seziye zaba yinqubo eyinhloko yamaphoyisa.
  • Roe v. [773]): Waqaphela ilungelo lomthetho-sisekelo lokukhipha isisu ngaphansi kweNkathi Yomthetho ka-Claus weSigqi se-14th Amendment. Icala labangela izimpikiswano eziqhubekayo zezombangazwe nezomthetho. (Note: Roe walawulwa ngecala Dobbs v. Jackson’s Health Organization[[] ngo-20222], ibuyisela lempikiswano ezindaweni.)
  • Obergefell v. Hodges (2015): Imenyezelwe ukuthi umshado oxubile uyilungelo eliyisisekelo ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo seshumi nane, idinga wonke amazwe ukuba anikeze izivumelwano zomshado emibhangqwaneni engokobulili obufanayo.

Ukuhlukana Kwamandla Nohulumeni

  • United States v. Nixon (1974]): Ngokubodwa wenqaba ukusho kukaMongameli uNixon ilungelo eliphelele lokulawula, umphoqelela ukuba akhiphe amakhasethi e-Watergate. Isinqumo saqinisekisa ukuthi akekho umuntu, ngisho nomongameli, ongaphezulu komthetho.
  • Uku-immigration ne-Naturation Service v. Chadha (19983): Ukuncishiswa kwe-pagian transmitted translation, i-ashed Congress esetshenziselwa ukugumbuqela izenzo zezikhulu. INkantolo yathi iveto yaphula i-bidaralism kanye nezimfuneko zeSiphakamiso I.
  • I-National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius (202): Wabheka ukugunyazwa komuntu ngamunye komthetho we-Affordal Care Act njengokusetshenziswa okusemthethweni kwamandla omthetho ontela kaKhongolo-Mkhandlu, kodwa igunya elilinganiselwe leSishaya-Mkhandlu ngaphansi kweCentu Claus kanye nokuthengisa u-Celassiaste ngokwanda kweMedicaid.

Ukugxekwa Nezinselele Zangesikhathi Esidlule

Ukubukeza ukwahlulela kukhanga ukugxeka okuphikelelayo okuvela ezingxenyeni zezombangazwe. Izimpikiswano eziyisisekelo zingahlanganiswa zibe izigaba ezintathu: ukulandisa ngentando yeningi, ukwahlulela, nokufaneleka.

“ I - Triammistermajoritarian"

Iqanjwe okokuqala yisazi sezomthetho uAlexander Bickel, le ngxoxo yokwahlulela ivumela amajaji angakhethwenga ukuba agumbuqele imithetho emiswe abameleli abakhethiwe ngokwedemokrasi. Kungani abameli abayisishiyagalolunye abafake izivatho kufanele basho okokugcina ngemibuzo ephikisanayo ngokuziphatha nangezombangazwe? Abasekeli baphendula ngokuthi uMthetho-sisekelo ngokwawo uyincwadi yezomthetho ngokwawo eshintshwa yizikhulu, futhi izinkantolo zivikela amalungelo amancane ezifinyelweni eziningi.

Ukuthatha Icala Ngokwahlulela Kumelene Nemingcele

Abagxeki bavame ukusola izinkantolo ngokuthi “zisebenza ngokumelene nomthetho” lapho zishaya imithetho ebonisa ukuthi zithanda noma zidala amalungelo amasha omthetho-sisekelo. Ngakolunye uhlangothi, “ukunqanda ukuqulwa kwecala” kuyatuswa lapho izinkantolo zilalela izishayamthetho / noma zisola lapho zihluleka ukuvikela amaqembu angenazikhundla. Amagama avame ukusetshenziswa ngokumelene. Okunye okungathathi hlangothi kubuza ukuthi inkantolo ithembekile yini embhalweni wemithetho yezomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo, isakhiwo, noma ukuthi ibeka iziqondiso zayo siqu. Icala elifana ne-. [[FLD]] V[FLD:1] [1], eliye lahlasela imingcele ebanzi, libhekwa njenge-astrist, [FLT] [3] Colust.[3] I-RGB] Ize i-lorignethiwer.[3] Ize i-Locter iqhubeke ngokumelene nokulawula komthetho. futhi i-octive i-octivelight.

Ithonya Lezombangazwe Nezimpi Eziqinisekisayo

Ngenxa yokuthi amajaji amiswa (amajaji angokomthetho ekuphileni), inqubo yokuqinisekisa iye yasetshenziswa kakhulu. Ukuhlola kwe-litermus nokuthatha izikhala ezihlukene kuye kwaqina, ikakhulukazi eNkantolo Ephakeme. Ukwenqaba kuka 2016 ukuqinisekisa uMerrick Garland nokuqinisekiswa okusheshayo kuka-Amy Coney Barrett ngo-2020 kubonisa indlela amandla okuhlola ukwahlulela akhiwe ngayo ngemiphumela ekhethiwe. Abagxeki baphikisa ukuthi lokhu kululaza ukwethemba umphakathi ekungakhethi kwejaji kwejaji. Nokho abanye baphawula ukuthi ukubukeza kokwahlulela kuklanyelwe kahle ukuhlola amagatsha ezombangazwe, futhi izinga elithile lethonya lezombangazwe ekuqondiseni akunakali.

Ukusekela Nokumelana Nezimo

Ngisho noma izinkantolo zikhuluma, izinqumo zazo azilalelwa njalo. Imfundiso yokuphakama kokwahlulela − ukuthi iNkantolo Ephakeme ihlanganisa wonke amanye amagatsha − iye yaphikiswana ngamaphuzu ahlukahlukene. Kubikwa ukuthi uMongameli uAndrew Jackson usho njalo ngemva Worcester v. [ [1832], “uJohn Marshall uye wenza isinqumo sakhe; manje makawabophe. Ngoma 1950 nango-1960, amanye awenqaba iziyalezo ze-cconomential. Muva nje, izimpikiswano zemithetho yezwe nemfundiso ye-ogconst componentment comment comment comment commentmentmentation profectivestions. Inkantolo ngokwayo iqaphele ukuthi ukufaneleka kwayo kuxhomeke “kuvuma ekuvumeleni kwayo emphakathini. ”[2] [Foted] [12]

Ikusasa Lokubukeza Kokwahlulela EMelika Eshintshayo

Emashumini eminyaka azayo kuzoba nezinselele zokwahlulela. ezobuchwepheshe, ukuhwebelana kwembulunga yonke nezimiso ezishintshashintshayo zezenhlalo kuyoshukumisela izinkantolo ukuba zisebenzise umbhalo omdala womthetho - sisekelo ezintweni ezintsha ezingokoqobo.

Ubuchwepheshe Nezindaba Zomuntu Siqu

Ukuqapha kwezemishini, imithombo yezokuxhumana, kanye nokuhlakanipha kokuzenzela kuphakamisa imibuzo mayelana nokwenqabela kweSichibiyelo sesine ngokuphenya nokuquleka okungacabangeli. INkantolo Ephakeme isiqalile kakade ukuzivumelanisa, njengaku Carpeenter v. United States[ [2018], eyayithi uhulumeni ngokuvamile udinga isiqinisekiso sokuthola amarekhodi endawo ye-cellone. Icala lesikhathi esizayo lingase likhulumele ukusebenzisa ukuqashelwa kobuso, ukumbiwa kokwaziswa yizinkampani ezizimele, kanye nokulinganisela kokusetshenziswa kwe-algorimethi ye-algoriom.

Ukunakekelwa Kwempilo Nezinkinga Zokuphila

Ngemva amaDobb, isimo somthetho-mthetho sokukhipha izisu sihlukene. Izinkantolo zikahulumeni manje zingachaza imithetho yazo siqu ukuze zivikele amalungelo okuzala, futhi izinkantolo zikahulumeni ziyobhekana nemibuzo ngokuhamba phesheya kwezwe, ukukhipha isisu, nokunakekela kokwelapha okuphuthumayo. Okwamanje, i-Affordcable Care Act ingabhekana nezinselele ezintsha, futhi izimpikiswano ezintsha zokuzifaka ezisizayo, ubunjiniyela izakhi zofuzo, kanye nemithetho yezempilo yomphakathi ziyovivinya imingcele yenqubo efanelekile nesivikelo esilinganayo.

Ubulungisa Bezenhlalo Nokungalingani Kwezimiso

Izinhlangano zezenhlalo ezinjenge-Black Live Matter ne # MeToo ziye zacela izinguquko zokwakha. Izinkantolo zingacelwa ukuba zisho ngokufushanisela ukucwasana kohlanga oluhleliwe epholishini, ezindlini, nasemfundweni. I-Cetametic Protection Clause and Voting Rights Act izakuhlala isendaweni eyinhloko yempi. Izinselele zokulwa ne-gerrymaning, imithetho yokukhetha okuncintiweyo, futhi imithetho yezezimali izoqhubeka ihlela inqubo yezombangazwe.

Ukwanda Kwembulunga Yonke

Ukubukeza kokwahlulela kwaseMelika kuya ngokuya kusebenzelana nomthetho wezizwe nemithetho yezinkantolo zakwamanye amazwe. Abanye abahluleli bacaphuna izenzakalo zangaphandle emibonweni yabo (umzk., Roper v. Simmons[], eyavimbela isigwebo sokufa kwentsha), kuyilapho abanye benqaba ukuthembela okunjalo. Njengoba ukuhweba kwembulunga yonke, izivumelwano zamalungelo abantu, kanye nokuphikiswana ngesiphambano kukhula, inkantolo ziyokwenqabela ukuphikisana phakathi kobukhosi besizwe nemithetho yomhlaba wonke.

Isiphetho: Ukubaluleka Okuhlala Njalo Kokubukezwa Kokwahlulela

Ukubukeza kokwahlulela akulona ithuluzi eliphelele noma amandla angenamkhawulo. Kuwumthetho-sisekelo odinga ukuhlukanisa njalo. Ukufaneleka kwawo kuxhomeke ekwakheni ukucabanga kokwahlulela, ukuthembela komphakathi ezinkantolo, kanye nokuzimisela kwamanye amagatsha ukuvumelana nokubusa. Uma ukusebenza kahle, ukubukeza kokwahlulela kuvikela inkululeko yomuntu ngamunye, kulondoloza ukwahlukana kwemibuso, futhi kuqinisekisa ukuthi akukho mdlali ongowedlula imingcele yomthetho-sisekelo. Uma entengantenga e [FLT]] u-Scott noma [[FLT:]K2] Klemagu. United States[FLT] [12:3] [194], okungasekela imingcele yesizwe. [194]

Njengoba iUnited States ibhekana nezinselele ezintsha, amandla ezinkantolo okuchaza uMthetho-sisekelo ayohlala ebalulekile, futhi kuncintiswane ($_ukubuswa kwentando yeningi). Ukuqonda ukubukezwa kokwahlulela kubalulekile kunoma ubani okhathalela umthetho nokulondolozwa kwamalungelo omthetho.