Umklamo Wokubukeza Kokwahlulela

Ukubukeza kokwahlulela kuyi-judiary ̱ inamandla okuhlola ukufaneleka komthetho-mthetho wezenzo zemithetho nezenzo zezikhulu. Leligunya liqinisekisa ukuthi wonke umthetho nezenzo zikahulumeni zihambisana nomthetho ophakeme wezwe. Ngaphandle kokubukezwa kokwahlulela, uMthetho-sisekelo uyoba yincwadi nje ebhukwile, engenakho ukusebenzisa indlela yokuphoqelela imikhawulo yawo. INkantolo ePhakeme Yomthetho iU.S. iQumkhandlu Ephakeme yaqala ngokusho ukuthi la mandla Marbury v. Maine [183] [183]), lapho uMahluleli uJohn Marshall ebhala ukuthi i-#820; iyizwe lomnyango wokwahlulela ngokugcizelela ukuthi umthetho uthini. &821; lelo mbono elilodwa laguqula imingcele yegatsha eliqinile egabeni le-Genecculth.

Ukubukeza kokwahlulela akunikezi izinkantolo ukuthunywa kokugxambukela noma yimuphi umthetho awuwuthandi. Kunalokho, kusebenza kuphela lapho icala likakhonkolo noma impikiswano ilethwa phambi kwenkantolo. I-paltiff kumelwe ukuba ime i-̬a eqondile, isigxobo somuntu siqu kumphumela i-— futhi lempikiswano kumelwe ibe ivuthwe (ayikho ukuqamba) futhi ingasaphili (ingasaphili). Lezi zihluzo ezisethi zigcina izinkantolo zingakhipheli izinqumo zemibono futhi zivale ukubukeza kokwahlulela okuqotho lapho imibuzo yomthetho ifuna isinqumo.

Le mfundiso ifeza imisebenzi emibili eyinhloko. Okokuqala, ivikela amalungelo abantu ngabanye ngokuphula imithetho eqinisekisa umthetho-sisekelo njengenkululeko yokukhuluma, inqubo efanelekile, noma isivikelo esifanayo. Okwesibili, ilondoloza ukwahlukana kwemibuso ngokuhlola ukumiswa kwemithetho nezikhulu. Ngalendlela, ukuhlola kokwahlulela kuqinisa umthetho futhi kuqinisekisa ukuthi abadlali bakahulumeni bahlala ngaphakathi kwemingcele ebekwe yincwadi yokusungula.

Izimbangela Zomlando Nesakhelo ’ I - Intent

Umqondo wokubukeza kokwahlulela awuzange uvele ekungabini nalutho. Izazi zefilosofi zokukhanyiselwa njengoJohn Locke noMontesquieu zaphikisa ngokuthi amagatsha ahlukene kahulumeni kumelwe ahlolane ukuze avimbele ubushiqela. Abenzi bamakoloni baseMelika, abajwayelene nomthetho ovamile wesiNgisi, babazi futhi ukuthi izinkantolo zamakoloni ngezinye izikhathi zazibukeze izenzo zePhalamende ngaphansi komthetho-mthetho-sisekelo wombuso. Izinkantolo eziningi zikahulumeni ngaphambi kuka-1789 zase zishaye imithetho engqubuzana nemithetho-mthetho-mthetho kazwe.

Ku-Constitution of the Convention of the 1787, izihambeli zaphikisana ngokuthi ijaji kufanele libe nendima ekubukezeni umthetho. ku-Alexander Hamilton, Fateralist No. 78, yavikela amandla, ibiza i-jadiary nge-̴ igatsha futhi iphikisa ukuthi kufanele libe negunya lokumemezela izenzo zezeze uma bephula umthetho. Nokho ibhukwana ngokwalo alinakho ukubukeza okucacile. Abahleli be-filidia bashiya umbuzo uvulile, bethemba ukuthi isimo sikahulumeni sizoba namandla.

UMahluleli omkhulu Marshall wathatha lokho okusikisela [ku- Marbury v. Madison. William Marbury, umphathi wokugcina omiswe nguMongameli John Adams, unobhala weSizwe uJames Madison ukuba adlulisele ukuthunywa kwakhe. UMarshall wanquma ukuthi nakuba iMarbury yayinelungelo lokuthunywa, iNkantolo Ephakeme yayingenagunya ngaphansi kweSiqesha 13 soMthetho weJadiary ka-179 ngenxa yokuthi leso lungiselelo sasiphikisana neSiphakamiso III soMthetho-mthetho. Ngokushaya umthetho kahulumeni okokuqala, uMarshall waveza ukuthi umthetho-mthetho ungowomthetho omkhulu kakhulu nokuthi iJudiary kumelwe ibophe amandla ayo.

Lomzuzu wokusungula wabeka isibonelo esiye salolonga ukubusa kwaseMelika kusukela kusukela ngaleso sikhathi. Ukubukezwa kokwahlulela akuzange kufakwe ezinkantolo zikahulumeni kuphela kodwa nasezinkantolo zikahulumeni, ezibukeza njalo imithetho kahulumeni ngokumelene kokubili nomthetho-sisekelo wombuso nohulumeni.

Izimpawu Eziwuphawu Ezathonya Umthetho

Emakhulwini amabili eminyaka, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yasebenzisa ukubukezwa kokwahlulela ukuze ixazulule ezinye zezizwe i’ izimpikiswano eziphikisana kakhulu.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

Ngemva , iNkantolo ngokushesha yabhekana nokuhlolwa kombuso kahulumeni. Umthetho waqasha iBank yesibili yase-United States, futhi uMaryland wafaka intela ebhange. UMahluleli omkhulu Marshall, futhi ebhalela iNkantolo, wagcizelela ukuthi uMthetho-sisekelo unikeza amandla angaphezu kwalawo abekwe obala. Wanquma futhi ukuthi amazwe awakwazi ukukhokha intela izinkonzo zikahulumeni ngenxa ye-̴ amandla okuhlanganisa amandla okubulala. ̵ lelicala landisa ukubukezwa kokwahlulela njengethuluzi lokulahla uhulumeni nokuvikela ukuphakama kombuso.

Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

Mhlawumbe ukusetshenziswa kakhulu kokubukeza kokwahlulela ekhulwini lamashumi amabili, Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo yamemezela ukuhlukaniswa kohlanga ezikoleni zomphakathi ngaphandle kobuzwe. INkantolo yavumelana ngokugoqela i-̴ kodwa ngokulinganayo kodwa ngokulinganayo i-̵ imfundiso ye-[FLT] Preveby v. Ferguson [18696], iphethe ukuthi isivikelo esifanayo ngaphansi kweSiphendulo se-145. Isinqumo sadinga isibindi esikhulu kakhulu ngenxa yokuthi sashintsha amashumi eminyaka esibonelo futhi sabangela ukumelana nolaka. Nokho sabonisa u-judiary &88; ukuvikela amalungelo amancane lapho amagatsha ehluleka ukuthatha isinyathelo sezombangazwe.

URade (1973)

[Isinqumo] sibulala i-Rade , iNkantolo yaqaphela owesifazane i-̱]; igunya lomthetho-sisekelo lokukhetha ukukhipha isisu ngaphansi kwelungelo lokuzifihla elishiwo yi-Curve Procesme Clausde yeSichibiyelo se-145. Isinqumo sabulala umthetho waseTexas owakhipha izisu eziningi. Abagxeki bamangalela iNkantolo yokuthatha isinyathelo sokwahlulela ngokudala ilungelo elingashiwonga ngokucacile eMthethweni. Abaxhasi baphikisa ukuthi iNkantolo yayivikela inkululeko eyisisekelo ekungeneni kwemithetho. [5] eminyakeni engu-50 kamuva, [[FLT.[FLT:]]] [FLT]] yabekwa umthetho [FO:] ngokukhipha izisu.[FLT] [5] [2]

United States v. Nixon (1974)

United States v. Nixon wahlola ukuthi umongameli angasho yini ilungelo lokugodla ubufakazi ekuhlolweni kwecala. INkantolo Ephakeme yavumelana ngokuthi nakuba ilungelo elikhulu likhona lokuvikela ukuxhumana okuyimfihlo, aliphelele. UMongameli Nixon wayalwa ukuba akhiqize amakhasethi aqoshiwe ekugcineni aholela ekulahleni kwakhe. Icala laqinisekisa ukuthi akekho, hhayi ngisho nomphathi omkhulu, ongaphezulu komthetho. Impindano yezehlulele lapha ihlola amandla kamongameli ngokuqondile futhi yasekela umthetho.

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

.Hodges yandisa ilungelo lokushada nemibhangqwana engokobulili obufanayo ezweni lonke. INkantolo yanquma ukuthi iSimemezelo se 14neth Isigwebo ’ i-Cement and Protection Cetable Clausss ayivunyelwe ukulahla izivumelwano zomshado ezibhalisa imibhangqwana efanayo. [[FLT:] Roe[[FLT] , isinqumo sabangela ukuba izikhalaze izikhalazo zokwahlulela ngokuphikiswa ngenxa yokuxazulula impikiswano yezenhlalo yokuthi imicabango eminingi kufanele ishiyelwe ekwahlulele. Nokho iNkanto incito inciso inciso ebanzi yezimiso zokuvikela izinqumo eziseduze, ibonisa indlela yokubukeza izibalo ngokuqonda ukuqondana.

Amacala abonisa indlela engavamile yokuhlaziya ukwahlulela: Ngalinye inkantolo lalahla umthetho noma isenzo sikahulumeni, futhi ngalinye lashintsha indlela engokomthetho yahlala ikhona.

Impikiswano Eqinile

Azikho izinkulumo ezidingida ukubukezwa kokwahlulela ezingaxazululi ukungezwani phakathi kwemithetho yokwahlulela nemithetho yokwahlulela.

Isenzo sobuJudicician [ ichaza izinkantolo ezizimisele ukushaya imithetho, ukwandisa amalungelo omthetho-sisekelo, noma ukungenela ezindabeni zenqubo. Abahluleli abawesabi ukugumbuqela inqubo noma ukusingatha izinkinga zezenhlalo amanye amagatsha angazinaki. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi izenzo zilulaza idemokrasi ngokuthatha indawo yemibono yabahluleli abangakhethwe abamele abamele. Abaxhasi baphendula ngokuthi ijaji kumelwe ngezinye izikhathi bathathe isinyathelo sokuvikela amaqoqo amagatsha namalungelo ayisisekelo lapho inqubo yezombangazwe ihluleka.

Ukwenqabela kobuJuda kweluleka izinkantolo ukuba zilalele izishayamthetho nezinhlangano eziphethe uma kungenzeka. Abahluleli abalawulayo bawusebenzisa ngokulinganiselwe uMthetho-sisekelo, balandele isibonelo, futhi bagweme ukunquma imibuzo yomthetho-sisekelo ngaphandle kokuba idingeka ngempela. Baphikisa ngokuthi ukulandisa ngentando yeningi kudinga amagatsha ezombangazwe ukuxazulula izimpikiswano eziningi zemithetho. Ukubonakaliswa okuzibamba ku-Overcending Wendell Holmes ̱ isikhombi sokuthi izinkantolo akumelwe zilahle umthetho ngenxa nje yokuthi zicabanga ukuthi awuhlakaniphile. Ngalendlela yokuhlola kokwahlulela, kuyikhambi lokugcina, hhayi ithuluzi lenqubo.

Izahlulelo eziningi ziwela kwezinye izigaba. Impikiswano ayiyona neze imfundo: inquma indlela izinkantolo ezisingatha ngayo izimpikiswano ezisukela emalungelweni okuvota kuya kumnyango wezezimali wokusekela inzuzo yendawo ezungezile. Ngokwesibonelo, Citizens United v. FEC [2010], iNkantolo yalahla imingcele yezindleko zezezombangazwe ezizimele zezinhlangano, ukudweba izimangalo zezenzo zobumboni. Inhlangano yezentengiselwano ye-Intelligation v. Selius [20], iNkanto esekela uMthetho we-Afford Careare Act &817; igunya lokukhokha intela, ukuveza ukuvinjwa kwezentengosi yezentengiselwano ebhizinisini kodwa encishini ephakathi kwe-Anglescease.

Imfundo yamuva iye yabuza ukuthi ingabe i-activasism ̵restractt 2brects ayilungile neze. Abanye baphikisa ngokuthi i-#820;ctivivism ” iyigama elisetshenziswayo ezinqumweni umuntu angavumelani nazo. Abanye basikisela ukugxila ezindleleni zokuchaza i-̬ ubuprostance buphikisana nobukhomfandamentali obuphilayo bemithetho-bukhomfa#812; i-instendide. Kodwa impikiswano isalokhu ibalulekile ekuqondeni indlela ama-America aqonda ngayo ukucubunga.

Imibono Yomhlaba Wonke Ngokubukeza Kokwahlulela

Ukubukezwa kokwahlulela akuyona into esungulwe abantu baseMelika kuphela, kodwa isibonelo se - United States siye sathonya izinkantolo zomthetho - sisekelo emhlabeni wonke.

EJalimane

Inkantolo ye-Federal Constitution Court yaseJalimane inamandla amakhulu okuhlola ukwahlulela. Inqulu ingahlola imithetho ngokulandelana kwemithetho engokomthetho (iNkantolo ePhakeme yaseBundersunggericht) ephethe izibalo zokwahlulela. Imiswe ngemva kweMpi Yezwe II ukuze inqande ukuphindaphindwa kobuNazi, inkantolo ingahlola imithetho yokuvumelana noMthetho oMkhulu (iGrundegesetz). Ngokungafani neNkakhulu, elalela amacala aqinile kuphela, inkantolo yaseJalimane nayo ibukeza izimpiso ezithathelwana ezithathelwanayo zesicelo sikahulumeni kahulumeni kahulumeni noma iphalali. Isimiso somthetho esinikezelwe ukuthi noma isiphi isinye izakhamuzi singasebenzisa inselele ezenzweni zezenzo. Inkantolo ibilokhu ivikela amalungelo ayisisekelo kahulumeni, kuhlanganise nesithunzi somuntu esingabantu, futhi ilingana.

Canada

Canada̱ isimiso sokwahlulela sihlanganisa ukubukezwa kwemithetho nokumiswa kwemithetho. Ngaphansi kwe- Umethi womthetho wamaCanadia of Rights ne Frees (1982), izinkantolo zingashaya imithetho ephula amalungelo emisha. Nokho, isigaba 33 sivumela iPhalamende likahulumeni noma izishaya-mthetho zesifunda ukuba zimemezele ukusebenza kuze kube iminyaka emihlanu naphezu kokubusa kokwahlulela. Le ̴ ingemi i-region ” inikeza izishaya - mthetho zokugcina emongweni ezithile, isici esingekho esimisweni se-U.. INkanto ephakeme yaseCanada ikhiphe imithetho elawula i-LBTQ+ amalungelo e-I-I-Epremilton, kodwa inkululeko yokukhipha izinqunywe zentando yentando yeningi.

eNdiya

I- Inkantolo yaseNdiya iye yahlola kakhulu, ithuthukisa izimfundiso ezinjenge-Kerala[#8221]; isakhiwo i-̵ imfundiso, ethi ngisho nezinguquko zomthetho-sisekelo azinakuqeda uhlelo lwemithetho-sisekelo. [[FLT:]] Khavanabavv v. State of Keralah [1273], inkantolo igcizelela amandla ayo okubukeza izigwebo zomthetho-mthetho-mthetho-sisekelo, isinyathelo esingaphezu kwe-U. Izinkantolo zaseNdiya ziye zasebenzisa isithakazelo somphakathi ekukhulumeni izihloko ezinjengesivikelo sendawo ezungezile, inkohlakalo, kanye nenguquko. I-jadikidia ibizwa kabanzi ngenxa yemibuso yamazwe ekhulu.

United Kingdom

I-United Kingdom ayinawo umthetho-mthetho obhaliwe futhi kanjalo ayinakho ukubukezwa kokwahlulela ngomqondo waseMelika. Nokho, njengoba Act , izinkantolo ze-UK zingahlola umthetho wokuvumelana ne-European Convention on Human Rights. Uma inkantolo ithola umthetho ongqubuzanayo, ikhipha umthetho we-“ ukuvumelana kokungavumelani, i-” engawululazi umthetho kodwa ewubekeli phansi ipale iPhalamende ukuba uqede. Isimiso se-UK sibonisa uhlobo olubuthakathaka lokuhlola ubukhosi bephalamende kuyilapho isavikela amalungelo.

Lezi zibonelo eziqhathanisayo zibonisa ukuthi ukubukezwa kokwahlulela kungahlotshaniswa nesizwe i̱ kuveza isiko lomthetho - sisekelo eliyingqayizivele.

Izimpikiswano Zesikhathi Esizayo

Izimpikiswano eziningana ziye zaqinisa ukuhlaziywa kwezinkantolo.

Ukumiswa Kwezinqumo Okuhloniphekile

Izivumelwano zeNkantolo Ephakeme seziye zaba izikhungo zempi ezihlukanisayo. Iziqinisekiso eziphikisayo zamaJaji uBrett Kavaugh noAmy Coney Barrett, kanye nokwenqaba kwamaRepublic ukuqulwa kwecala likaMerrick Garland ngo-2016, ziye zaqeda ukuthemba umphakathi eNkantolo njengenhlangano yezezombangazwe. Izinhlolo zibonisa ukulahla imvume, futhi amaMelika amaningi manje abheka iNkantolo njengomunye umdlali wezezombangazwe. Lombono usongela ilungelo lokuhlola kokwahlulela ngenxa yokuthi inkantolo ixhomeke ekuthembekeni komphakathi ekufezeni izinqumo zawo ngaphandle kokuphoqeqelela.

Ukupakisha Kwenkantolo

Abanye abathuthukayo, abakhungathekiswa yiNkantolo ’ ukushintshwa okungaguquguquki, baye basikisela ukwandisa inani lamajaji kusukela ku-9 kuya ku-11 noma ngaphezulu. Lo nyaka ka-#820; i-courtpallation ̵ umqondo uphikisa. Abaxhasi baphikisa ukuthi iyakubuyisela ukulinganisela kwemibono. Inkulumo ithi izobhubhisa iNkantolo i̱ ukuzimela futhi imeme ukukhushuba lapho amandla eshintsha izandla. Umongameli uFranklin Rooselt ̱ umhlane no-19717 wesicabhakela ihlala iyindaba eyingozi. Inkulumo iphakamisa imibuzo eyisisekelo ngokuthi ushintsho kusiphi isimo sesakhiwo se-judiary luvumelana yini nokubukezwa kwezomthetho.

Ukuqamba Kwakuqala Okuphikisana Nomthetho - sisekelo Ophilayo

Izindlela zokuchaza ezingemva kokuhlola kokwahlulela ziyaphikiswa. abacuphi bama-Oriarians baphikisa ngokuthi amalungiselelo omthetho-sisekelo kufanele anikezwe incazelo yawo lapho ethathwa. asekela umthetho-sisekelo wemithetho-sisekelo [[ uphikisa ngokuthi uMthetho-sisekelo kumelwe uvumelane nokushintsha izimo. Ukulwa phakathi kwalezi zimo kudlalwe kuzo zonke izimo ezinkulu. UJaji Antonin Scalia ulwela ubuScalia; Justice Stephen Brey wasekela umthetho-siseko ophilayo. Amajaji amanje uClarence noNeil Gor Gowth alandela izindlela zokuqala, kuyilapho uJastice Kagan ngokuvamile emukela indlela evumelanayo. Ukukhetha kwendlela engcono ethinta ukukhishwa ngezisukelo, izibhamu, amalungelo esebenzela.

Ithemba Lomphakathi Nokubambisana

Ukubukeza kokwahlulela kuxhomeke ekuthobeleni ngokuzithandela. Uma abadlali bezombangazwe benqaba noma bephula iziyalezo zenkantolo, i-jadicaary ’ igunya liyawohloka. Izibonelo zamuva zihlanganisa izikhulu zikahulumeni ezinqaba ukusebenzisa izinqumo ezifanayo zomshado noma ukumelana nemithetho yenkantolo esemthethweni yokulungisa imishado. Kubikwa ukuthi uMongameli Andrew Jackson uthi, i-#820; uJohn Marshall wenze isinqumo sakhe; manje makasivumele ukuba siqikelele. 𔄣 nakuba i-judiary yanamuhla yesizwe inezimiso ezilawula inqubo ezilawulayo, ukuvukela okusekelwe ekubekezeleni umthetho. Ukulondoloza ukuqiniseka umphakathi kudingekile uma ukubukezwa komthetho kuhlala kuphumelela.

Ikusasa Lokubukeza Kokwahlulela

Ukwahlulela kuzoqhubeka kushintsha njengoba kuphakama izinselele ezintsha. Ubuchwepheshe, ukushintsha kwesimo sezulu, ukuhlakanipha okungelutho, nezinkinga zempilo yembulunga yonke konke kuzoveza imibuzo ewumthetho - sisekelo. Izinkantolo kuyodingeka zinqume ukuthi isivikelo semfihlo sidlulela kude kangakanani enkathini yobuchwepheshe, ukuthi ingabe isenzo sikahulumeni ekushintsheni isimo sezulu sihlanganisa amalungelo omthetho - sisekelo, nokuthi singalinganisa kanjani ukulondeka kwesizwe nenkululeko yomphakathi.

Ngesikhathi esifanayo, kudingeka inguquko ikhule. Ezinye izazi zisekela isimiso sezimiso ezingokomthetho zamajaji aseNkantolo Ephakeme, imingcele yezikhathi, noma inqubo yokumisa ebhalwe ngokucace kakhulu. Abanye basikisela ukuba iNkantolo yegunya ithathe imingcele kwezinye izindaba. Noma iluphi ushintsho oluphawulekayo lungaguqula umkhuba wokubukeza kokwahlulela.

Naphezu kwezimpikiswano, ukubukezwa kokwahlulela kusebalulekile. Kuvikela abantu ekuphathweni uhulumeni, kuqinisekisa ukuthi imithetho ibonakalisa izindinganiso zomthetho-sisekelo, futhi kunikeza izindlela zokuthula zokuxazulula izimpikiswano eziyisisekelo ngencazelo yencwadi yethu eyisisekelo. Amandla okusho ukuthi umthetho unomthwalo onzima. Izinkantolo kumelwe zisebenzise lawomandla ngokuthobeka, ngokuqina, nangokwethembeka kumthetho. Uma iRepublic iqhubeka, ukubukezwa komthetho kuyokha isimiso somthetho futhi kulondoloze umthetho.

Ukuze ufunde ngokwengeziwe, bheka ingosi yeNkantolo Ephakeme , umbhalo kaMarbury v. Madison eCornell Legal Information Institute, kanye [[FLT:]Oyez.org ngokwempikiswano nasecaleni okuphindwayo .