Isingeniso

UMthetho-sisekelo we-1787 wakha uhulumeni olinganiselwe, onezikhundla ezihlukene kuyilapho ugcina wonke amanye amagunya ezwe nasebantwini. Emakhulwini amabili eminyaka kamuva, imingcele eqondile yaleyo ngxenye isaphikiswa kakhulu. Izisekelo ezimbili ezichazayo − u-aqualistism nobuzwe (i-soshatism) zaqala ukubekwa phambili kwe-jurisprudency yanamuhla engokomthetho-mthetho. I-Oritanism inikeza indlela yokuqonda umbhalo womthetho-sisekelo osekelwe ekuqondeni kwawo umphakathi ekuhlolweni kwawo. I-Federalism inikeza isimiso esilinganisela ukufinyelela amandla esizwe. Uma izinkantolo zisebenzisa ukucabanga kokuqala, ngokuvamile zifinyelela eziphethweni ezisekelwe ekuqiniseni imingcele ye-unistritives. Lesi sihloko sihlola indlela leyomiculo ezimbili ezichaza ngayo ubuhlobo babo, nethonya eliqhubekayo emthethweni wase-Melika.

Ukuqonda Ukudalula

Imvelaphi Nemisuka

Ubufandamentali bavela njengenkolelo ehlukile yokuchaza umthetho-sisekelo ngasekupheleni kwekhulu lama-20 leminyaka, ngokuyinhloko ngenxa yesenzo esicatshangelwayo sobufundisi beWarren neBurger Courts. Isisekelo sawo siwukuthi incazelo yoMthetho-sisekelo kufanele iqinisekiswe ekuqondeni okwakukhona lapho ilungiselelo ngalinye selimukelwa. Abasekeli bokuqala, njengo-Attorney General Edwin Meese III noJaji uRobert Bork, baphikisa ngokuthi incazelo emisiwe kuphela ingasekela ukuvumelana kwentando yentando yentando yentando yentando yeningi kunokuba ifunekelwe inkantolo. Umestrinto u-Anto Scalia waba ummeli wenkolelo - mbono ebaluleke kakhulu, begcizelela ukuthi uMthetho-sisekelo awuyona incwadi ephilayo kodwa u-Actrison u-Edwin Meese III.

Incazelo Yomphakathi Yokuqala

Umcabango woqobo uhlukanisa izikole ezimbili ezinkulu. Eyokuqala, inhloso yokuqala , ifuna ukubuyisa izinhloso ezicatshangelweyo zamaFramers nama ratifiers. Abagxeki baphawula ukuthi lokhu kungaba nzima uma umbhalo unezici ezihlukene noma ezingaqondakali. Okwesibili, [[FLT:] incazelo yasobala yasobala [[[FLT:]], ibuza ukuthi umuntu onengqondo ngalesosikhathi wayeyowuqonde kanjani umbhalo. UMahluleli uSchalia wasekela lendlela, ephikisa ngokuthi ugwema imihiva izihiva zokuzi ngenjongo zangasese. Namuhla, abahluleli bokuqala kakhulu nabaqondi bokuqala nezazi bamukela injongo yasobala, ezindaweni eziningi ezifana [FLT:] [FLDiple].[200] [5] [5]

Ithonya Lesikhathi Esizayo Ezinkantolo

Ubufandanda buye basuka eqedweni eliyikhohlo ukuya emfundisweni evelele eNkantolo Ephakeme. Amajaji uClarence Thomas, Samuel Alito, Neil Gorfoth, Brett Kavahaugh, noAmy Coney Barrett bonke bazichaza njengabasunguli bendlela ethile. Imibono yabo ivame ukubiza incazelo yokuqala yomthetho-sisekelo ukuba inqande amandla kahulumeni. Ithonya libonakala emikhakheni eminingi: inqubo yobugebengu, inkulumo ekhululekile, ukwahlukana kwemibuso, futhi ikakhulukazi ubuzwe. Inkantolo yamanje izisusa izinquluko zokuqala ezithiwe yizinqumo ezilinganiselayo igunya likahulumeni futhi ibuyisela amalungelo esizwe.

Ukuqonda Umbango

Umlando Ogciniwe

I-Federalism ayiyona nje i-politiki kuphela; iwumthetho-sisekelo ogunyaziwe. Izimpikiswano zokuncintisana ezisekelwe ekulondolozeni ubukhosi bezwe kuyilapho isungula uhulumeni onamandla. ISichibiyelo seshumi leshumi sacacisa ukuthi amandla angagunyazwanga i-United States nguMthetho-sisekelo, noma anqatshelwe ezweni, agcinelwa amazwe ngokulandelana, noma abantu. Icala lokuqala, ikakhulukazi [[FL:0]MCulloch v. Maryland, ivuma amandla abanzi ohulumeni kodwa futhi agunyaza ukuvikelwa kwemithetho yentela engokomthetho. Kusukela emakhulwini ekhulu le-19 nasekuqaleni kwekhulu lama-20, umthetho weNkakhulu yeNkantolo yesizwe phakathi kwezikhathi ezinamandla ze-Ebhuloni kanye nezikhathi zegunya lesizwe.

I - Dual Federalism iphikisana ne - Conféderation Federalism

Isibonelo esingokwesiko se- uhulumeni ucabanga ukuthi ungazigcina izimbulunga ezihlukene zesenzo sikahulumeni nohulumeni. INkantolo Ephakeme eMbusweni ihleka iCasess [[ [1873]] [183]) ilinganisela ukufinyelelwa kweSigqi Saka-Mguquko se 145 sombuso ukuze silondoloze amandla amaphoyisa. I-New Deart yaphawula ukushintshwa kwe-modelizimu [[[FLT:] [[FLT:]], ngaphansi kwemisebenzi embalwa yesizwe nemithetho ebonakala isebenza ndawonye ukuze iqondise izinhlelo zokuhlela izinhlelo, ngokuvamile ngemithetho kahulumeni nemithetho ehlangene. Imithetho engokomthetho yezombangazwe yayiqala ukuvimbela ukuvimbela ukubusa kwezombangazwe.[FLD] v [FT][FT] [FT] [FFLY] [192] [192] [192]))) Amandla embuthweni sesizwe sombuso wesizwe esivamile, iyabonakala

Ukuvuselelwa Kwesimo Sikahulumeni Sanamuhla

Kusukela ku-United States v. Lopez (1995]), iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yavuselela ubuzwe ngokufuna ukuhlangana okuqinile kwezentengiselwano yesifundazwe ngaphambi koMkhandlu ingalawula umsebenzi ongewona wezomnotho. [[[FLT:]] Ukuveza i-University [United States v. [[FLT] [[FLT] [197] [197] [197] [197] Inkantolo yanciphisa umthetho kazwelo owegunyaza umthetho owegunyazisa izikhulu zesikhulu zikahulumeni, iphethe i-Afford inqabela izikhulu zesikhulu zesifunda eziphethe izikhulu zesifunda sesifundazwe, isithi inqabela ukubophela ukubophela kwentela okugunyaza intela kuphela. [[FTLT]] [5] I-FUR.[4] I-Empekisedks , i-ognomediase , i-oglone ngokomthetho-oglone, njengoba i

Ukungezwani Kokuqala Nokulwela Uhulumeni

Umbhalo, Isakhiwo Nencazelo Yakuqala

Isivumelwano sobuProfethi nombuso sihlangene nesibopho esifanayo sombhalo nokwakheka koMthetho-sisekelo. Indlela yokuqala ibheka ekuqondeni umbhalo njengoba wawuqondwa lapho ugunyazwa. I-Federalism ivela ngqo kulowombhalo: ISiphakamiso Esibala amagunya kaKhongolo, iSichibiyelo seshumi elinesine sigcine okusele, futhi iSichibiyelo seMithelela se 1450 siphosa imingcele elinganiselwe ezindaweni ezithile. Ukuhlaziya kokuqala kwezentengiselwano Clausle, ngokwesibonelo, kubuza ukuthi “umkhandi phakathi kwezifunda eziningana” yini ezihlanganisa ukwakhiwa, ezolimo, noma imisebenzi yendawo ephelele. Ubufakazi obungokobutsheliwe bubonisa ukuthi ayizange. Ngakho, abahluleli bokuqala abaningi baphetha ukuthi iSivumelwane sikwephula umthetho lapho i-Commercelce ilawula umsebenzi wendawo yasendaweni engekho ngokwezomnotho.

Izimiso Eziyinhloko Ezihlanganisa Ababili

Izifundiso zokwakha eziningi zivela emphambanweni. izinombolo ezifuna ukuba wonke umthetho kahulumeni athole ukusekela ngamandla athile. u-Anti-yalang[ uvimbela ukuphoqelela izishaya-mthetho zesizwe noma abaphathi ukuba basebenzise izinhlelo zikahulumeni. [[FLT:]] umthetho wonke uthola ukusekela kombuso [[FLT:] isivikelo sokuzivikela sobuso [ igwebo lwesu lomthetho owedwa enkantolo yombuso olungekho isigebengu esiqinile. [[FLT:] Fitectionation predition[FL] [FLT]] [FOLT] [5] icustomssss profectivessionsssss provicestings of ault) uma umthetho womthetho we-oumthetho ngamunye ungena kahle. Izimiso eziqinile emashumi amane amashumi amane amashumi eminyaka amanani awe.

Izici Eziwuphawu Endaweni Engemuva

United States v. Lopez (1995)

Icala lalihilela umthetho kahulumeni owenza kube ubugebengu ukuba nesibhamu eduze kwesikole. Uhulumeni waphikisa ngokuthi ukuba nezibhamu ezifundeni ezithinta kakhulu ibhizinisi lezentengiselwano yasesifundazwe ngokwandisa izindleko zomshuwalense nokunciphisa ukuphumelela kwezemfundo. INkantolo, esinqumweni sika-5-4, yalahla lowombono. ISikhulu uRehnquist sagcizelela ukuthi uMthetho-sisekelo ubala amandla alinganiselweyo nokuthi umsebenzi wezentengiselwano wawungenawo umgangatho ocacile wezomnotho. Umbono wawuncike kakhulu ekuqondeni okungokomlando, ungasho ukuthi iFormage Claus ehlose ukuba ifinyelele kuphela “intellimente” futhi hhayi yonke imisebenzi engathinta intengi. [[FLT:] [FLT] uLez umbango wokuqala kusukela ekuxazululeni kwe-Clamediast, futhi uveza igunya le-Clauschism.

Shicilelaz v. United States (1997)

Ku Shicilela u-, iNkantolo yakhuluma nomthetho we-Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act, owawudinga izikhulu zikahulumeni nezomthetho wendawo ukuba zihlole isizinda sabathengi bemibhamu. Uhulumeni waphikisa ngokuthi iSishaya-Proviko singayala izikhulu zikahulumeni njengendlela yokusebenzisa umthetho kazwelonke. Umbono kahulumeni kazwelonke uScalia ukholelwa ukuthi uhulumeni wezwe awunakho “umyale" izikhulu zikahulumeni ukuba zisebenzise izinhlelo zikahulumeni. Imicabango yayiyiwokuqala: isakhiwo somthetho womthetho-mthetho-mthetho, njengoba kuqondwa nge-ratifitiod, awuvumelanga ukubuthwa kwemithetho enjalo. Umbono ocacishiciswe emlandweni kanye nomthetho womthetho womthetho wezwe. [FLT:] [FFON]]

Federation ye-Independent Business v. Sebelius (202)

Icala labekela inselele imvume ka-Affordal Care Act ka-Affordal ifuna ukuba abantu abaningi baseMelika bathenge umshuwalense wempilo. Uhulumeni waphikisa ngokuthi lo myalo wawuwukusetshenziswa okusemthethweni kwegunya lezentengiselwano uClaus ngenxa yesinqumo sokungathengi umshuwalense sasinemiphumela enzima yezomnotho. Isinqumo sikaMahluleli omkhulu uRoberts sawulahla lowo mbono, siqinisekisa ukuthi uMphathi wezentengiselwano Clausle unikeza amandla okulawula intengiselwano ekhona, angaphoqeqeleli abantu ukuba bangene kwezohwebo endaweni yokuqala. URoberts wathembela ekuqondeni okungoko umlando phakathi kokuqondisa nokungasebenzi kwezenziswa kwentela. Isinqumo salondoloza isibopho sokuthi iCementalmessance imingcele yangempela futhi uhulumeni akanakwane igunya ngenxa nje yenkinga yesizwe.

[[UMTH:0] Murphy v. NCAA (2018)

[[NTL:0] I-Murphy yabulala i-Obrofessional and Amateration Providence Act (PASPA), enqabela ukugunyaza imidlalo yokugembula. INkantolo yathi i-PASPA commandered State signifects zomthetho ngokuphoqelela ukuba zigcine izinqabo endaweni. Umbono ka-Alto wasebenzisa uhlelo olumelene nomthetho kusuka ku- Primpz kanye [[FLT:] ne-[FLT:] ne-New York]. United States. Umbono wawungasekelwe kuyo yomibili umbhalo nakuqondana: umthetho olinganiselwe, futhi ukhipha isimiso esiqondile semithetho yemithetho yemithetho yemithetho yemithetho elawula. Isinqumo asiqiniseki phakathi kwesinqumo sesifunda.

New York State Rifle & Pistol Association v. Bruen [2022]

Nakuba ingekho indaba kahulumeni ngomqondo omncane, Bruen ibonisa indlela inqubo engokwemvelo ehlangene ngayo negunya lombuso negunya lokulawula. Inkantolo yamemezela ukuthi ukuhlaziywa kweSibili seSichibiyelo kumelwe “kusekelwe ekuqondeni okungokomlando kwelungelo lokuphatha izikhali.” Abaningi bayenqaba ngokuqondile ukuhlolwa kwezindlela ezasetshenziswa izinkantolo eziphansi, kunalokho bagcizelela umbhalo nophendlo lwezomlando. Isinqumo sashaya phansi imingcele efihlekile yokuphatha i-mibhoshobhi ye-mistry, bethi isifundale isifundazwelo sokuqala, sisho ukuthi isifundazwe asinakufuna “isizathu esifanelekile ngokomthetho ngenxa yokuthi imithetho enjalo ayizange ibe khona ekuqaleni. [FLT:] Bru[FLT][FF3] [FF:] [F] ifaka ukuvivinywa kwemithetho enzima yempi engokomthetho engokomthetho engokomthetho ebekwe engokomthetho engokomthetho, ngezinye izincazelo zezikhulu zezikhulu, kodwa iveza ukuthi inqubo yeNkakhulu leNkakhulu.

Ukuthatha Isidala, Uhulumeni, Nezindaba Zangesikhathi Esidlule

Ukunakekela Impilo

I-Afford Care Act ihlala ingu-mkhondo. Ngemva [koku- NFIB v. Sebelius, izigungu ziye zasebenzisa amandla azo agciniwe ukusungula izitshintshi zomshuwalense, iziphathi, nokuzama ukusebenzisa izidakamizwa. Izimpikiswano zoqobo ngokumelene nempicabadala kahulumeni abaphambanayo ziyaqhubeka zivela ngokumelene nezimfuneko zomsebenzi we-Medicaid, izithiyo, izithiyothiyo, kanye nemithetho ye-telehealth. Izinkantolo ezisezantsi ezisebenzisa [ LY] . kanye [FLT:] .[FLT] SALIus [[FLD:5]] ziyaqhubeka ukuchaza amandla okuhlangene kwezentengiselwano. Ukulawula ukuhlanganisa ukuhlanganisa kwezentengiselwa.

Umthetho Wendawo Ezungezile

I-Ceac Water Act i-Ceact ibuye ifike ezindaweni ezingamaxhaphozi ilokhu iyindaba ephindaphindwayo ye-constrist. Sackett v. [[PA FLT:1] [2023], iNkantolo Ephakeme yavala incazelo ye- “amanzi ase-United States,” iphethe ukuthi i-Act imbobophela indawo ephansi kuphela ehlangeneyo namanzi ahlalayo. Umthetho u-Alito’s conctrence kanye no-textives waveza izimiso zokuqala zombili ngokulinganisela ukuvalwa kombuso wezwe, njengoba kwakuqondwa ngo-197272, ingahlanganisa kahle. Abameleli bendawo yokuhlela ukuthi ukubusa okunjalo kunezikhungo ezisetshenziswa kwempahla ezisezweni, kuyilapho amaqembu egubhabhiyo egubha ukubuyiselwa kwezindawo.

Amalungelo Ezibhamu Nobukhosi BukaHulumeni

Isinqumo Bruen siye sabangela inselele cishe kuwo wonke umthetho wezwe wokulawula izibhamu. Izinkantolo eziphansi manje kumelwe zihileleke ekuhloleni umlando ukuze zinqume ukuthi umngcele “usekelwe esikweni lomlando lesizwe lemithetho yezibhamu.” Lokho kuhlola ngokuvamile kudinga abahluleli bamazwe ukuba bahlole imithetho kahulumeni kusukela esikhathini sokusungula. Amanye amazwe aye aphendula ngokumisa imithetho evunyelwe, aqinisa igunya lawo ngaphansi kweSiphendulo sesibili. Umphumela unamandla ayinkimbinkimbi lapho ukubeka isimilo sokuqala kodwa alondoloza amandla amakhulu okuchaza khona imithetho yawo siqu yokulawula njengoba leyomibuso ingangqubani nencazelo yokuqala. Ukuqinisa nokulawula kokubili ukusekela kwegunya kuye ngokwesimo.

Inhlangano yenkolo yeCOVID-19

Lo mqedazwe wabangela ukuba kukhishwe iziyalezo zezempilo zomphakathi ezivala amabhizinisi, imibuthano elinganiselwe, kanye nemithetho yokufihla imbobo. Izwe lasebenza ngaphansi kwemibuso yamaphoyisa avamile. Uhulumeni kahulumeni wasebenzisa iCDC ukuphoqa ama-detrantium nemithetho yomsebenzi. INkantolo Ephakeme yabulala i-CDC ngokuxoshwa kwe-modator ezisekelweni zokuqala, ibambe ukuthi inkampani yayingenagunya elingokomthetho futhi amandla anjalo ayedlula amandla kahulumeni ahlukene. Izwe lasebenzisa icala elikhulu lokulawula impilo yomphakathi, nakuba iNkanto e-CalC ku- i-Tampon v. News futhi iphoqe izikhululo ukuba inqande uhulumeni we-CHOVID emelene nokukhulekela okungathandeki. Lezimo zenqubo zokulawula komphakathi lapho kunikezwa amalungelo athile embusweni womthetho womthetho womthetho.

Ukugxekwa Namanga

Izincazelo zobuzwe zakuqala azinabo abagxeki. Ezinye izazi ziphikisa ngokuthi incazelo yasekuqaleni yomphakathi ye- “commerce” yayibanzi kunezezazi zanamuhla, nokuthi amaFrames ayehlose i-Commerce Clause ukuba inikeze amandla amakhulu. Abanye baphikisa ukuthi uhulumeni ngokwawo wavela ngemva kwe-New Deal nokuthi uMthetho-sisekelo wakhiwa ngokuhlukana okuguquguqukayo kwegunya. Kodwa abanye bagomela ukuthi i-commonism ingumthetho owe-awusekene uma isetshenziswa ezinkingeni zanamuhla ezinjengokushintsha isimo sezulu noma ukulawulwa kwe-i - Internet. Le nkinga i-critiques iphelisa imfundo eqhubekayo nempikiswano yokwahlulela. Noma kunjalo, iningi lamanje leNkanto yamanje liye lamukela umbono wokuthi incazelo yokuqala ingcono kakhulu ekuqondiseni kwemingcele yombuso, futhi leyo hulumeni ifuna ukuba imingcele ibeke imingcele yalabo abakhona.

Isiphetho

Ukuhlangana kwe-listration ne-constitution ku-imprisprance yanamuhla kumelela indlela evumelanayo nenethonya ekuchazeni umthetho-sisekelo. I-pritary inikeza indlela yokufunda umbhalo womthetho-sisekelo ngendlela oqondwa ngayo ekwakhekeni. I-Federalism inikeza imingcele ebekwayo ebekwayo. Zombili, ziveza ukunqanda amandla ombuso, ukuphathwa kwezwe, futhi igcizelela ukuthi ukusuka emklamweni wokuqala kumelwe kuthethelelwe ngegunya lomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo ocacile. Izenzakalo ezivela ezindaweni ezithi [[FLT:] [FLT] [1] ukuya ku [FLT:] Bru] [[FLT] [FLT] [3] [imper:] iveza ukuthi lendlela yokuthatha imingcele yemithetho eqinile kodwa eqinile. Njengoba kuqondwa yimithetho ye-Amerikakhulu leminyaka yanamuhla, iyakuqhubeka nokusekela noma i-uthomome ye-Esmomesmentston.

Ukuze ufunde ngokwengeziwe, bheka [[FLT: 0] iSichibiyelo seshumi kuKhongolo.gov; [[FLT:]Cornell Information on Exposition ; nemibono ephawulayo [ku [[FLT:]] i-Lebez[ kanye [FLT] ne printz.]