Isimiso sokuzivikela sombuso sisimiso sombuso saseMelika sokuvikela izingozi zezemvelo, ivikela izenzakalo eziningi ezinkantolo zikahulumeni ngaphandle kwemvume. Simiswe eSichibiyelweni seshumi nanye futhi sabekwa isikhathi eside, le mfundiso ilondoloza imingcele yohulumeni futhi ivikela izimali zabo ezimpilweni zangasese. Nokho lapho izimo zempilo zomphakathi ziphakama njengokungathi izinhlekelele zemvelo, noma izenzakalo zezemvelo, kumelwe zithathe isinyathelo ngokushesha ukuze zivikele abantu bazo. Izinyathelo ezifana neziqondiso zokuvala izakhamuzi, iziphakamiso, ukunqanda, nokuhamba ngemingcele evimbela ukulawulwa yimithetho engokomthetho. Ukungantentetheleki kwesimiso sokuzivikela kwezentengo nesidingo sokuziphendulela phakathi kwezinkinga phakathi nokuhlola izingozi: abantu ngabanye: Abantu bangasheshaye umbuso wokwephula amalungelo abo phakathi nobunzima besimo somphakathi? Lapho ukuvikela kombuso wezwe kuveza ukulawulwa komthetho womthetho noma ukulawula kwemithetho embusweni wombuso???

ISisekelo Somthetho - sisekelo Sombuso Ophakeme

ISichibiyelo sokuzivikela kombuso sagunyazwa ngo1795. Isinqumo savela ngokuqondile esinqumweni seNkantolo Ephakeme [iSihlalo se-Ngilandi esivamile, lapho uMbuso ungenakumangalelwa khona ngaphandle kwemvume yawo. Abakhi boMthetho-sisekelo wase-U. u-Georgia [[FLT] [1793], lapho iNkantolo yavumela isakhamuzi ukuba sinyukele eGeorgia ngenxa yezikweletu ezingemthetho ezingakhokhelwanga. Izigaba zale ziqhutshelwa ngokushesha ukugumbuqela kwemithetho ye-mthetho [Fol:0] I-CHOLM] v. [ishm. [[FUFUM] v. [ist] Admignomes , [1793] [1793], lapho iNkakhulu leNkanto evunyelwe ukukhokhwazwa noma ukumelana nenye i-United States, noma i-Hugueverse-Everse."

Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yachaza ukulungiswa ngokuphandle. Hans v. Louisiana (1890), iNkantolo yabambelela ekutheni ukunqanda ukumiswa kuhambisana nesizwe ngezakhamuzi zayo, ngisho noma umbhalo ungasho ukuthi kunjalo. Izinqumo zamuva, ezifana ne- Alden v. Maine [1999], ukuvikela kwemithetho engokomthetho enkantolo kuvikela ubukhosi bezomonakalo. Namuhla, umthetho wokuzivikela uvikela umthetho owezwe ekufuneni imali engekho emthethweni, ngaphandle kokuba imvume engokomthetho noma i-Hulumeni engokomthetho ngaphansi kwegunya lawo.

Izinga Nezinto Ezikhethekile KuMbusi

Naphezu kwesivikelo sawo esikhulu, ukuzivikela komzimba womuntu siqu akunazo izimpawu eziyisisekelo ezivumela amaqembu ahlukene ukuba avimbele ukuthatha isinyathelo sikahulumeni, ikakhulukazi lapho amalungelo omthetho - sisekelo esengozini noma lapho uMkhandlu ukhuluma ngokucacile. Ukuqonda lokhu kuhlukile kubalulekile ezimweni eziphuthumayo zempilo yomphakathi, lapho imibuso ingase yeqe imingcele engokomthetho.

Imfundiso Yokugcina Ewumntwana

Enye yezindlela ezibaluleke kakhulu ukukhululeka kwezentengiselwano yile Ex etho ye-Young imfundiso, eyasungulwa yiNkantolo Ephakeme ngo-1990. Ngaphansi kwalemfundiso, abantu ngabanye bangamangalela izikhulu zikahulumeni enkantolo kahulumeni ngenxa ye-infirdentive noma ukudalula ukuze bavimbele ukugcinwa komthetho kahulumeni okuqhubekayo, kuhlanganise nomthetho womthetho womthetho. Indaba eqanjiwe ukuthi isikhulu sezwe esisebenza ngokungemthetho asisebenzi ngenxa yezwe futhi kanjalo asitholi ukuvikeleka kwesimiso sombuso. Lokhu kungavumela ukulahlwa kwemali enkantolo yemali, kodwa kuvimbela ukugcinwa kokungamiswa kwemithetho engokomthetho. Izinhlangano zezentengo yomphakathi, i-CFOctive, i-CUrrome.[20] Izinhlangano zezenkolo ezigunyaziwe, izikhulu zezenyuk.[20]

Ukuxoshwa Kwenhlangano

UKhomishane ungenza ulwelwe oluzimele lwe-Brouted uma yenza umsebenzi wokuvikela uhulumeni ngokusebenza kwemithetho elawulayo ephethe i-Preat Court ngaphansi kwe-Candelo 5 yeSichibiyelo se-14. Ukwenza kanjalo, uMkhandlu kumelwe (1) uyiveze ngokungenaphutha injongo yawo yokuvikela ukuqulwa kwesimiso somthetho-mthetho-sisekelo futhi (2) usebenze ngaphakathi kwegunya lawo lomthetho-sisekelo. Emkhakheni wempilo yomphakathi, isibonelo esivelele kakhulu yi-Puries Public Rearency and Emergencyly Beatting (P) Act of Exption of the Produception (P) ngaphansi kwe-2005. I-P) inikeza icebo eliwumthetho elizinzile elizinzileyo lokwe ngokomthetho lokwe ngokomthetho, kodwa aliyinikezisekeli isilinganiso esiwumbuso esiwulawulayo sombuso wonke ngokwesilinganiso sesimiso sokuzimo eziseqekeleleka eziwulweni. Nokho, kodwa alilenze inqubo yesilinganiso sesimiso sombuso esiphansi kakhulu sezwe esingungene, kodwa aliyiphumeleli esiwuphume

Isinqumo Sikahulumeni Sokugqoka

I-odoct ingavuma ngokuphandle ukuquliswa, kungaba ngomthetho noma ngokuhlanganyela ezinhlelweni ezithile zikahulumeni. Izifunda eziningi ziphethe ukuthi izikhali ezizimelayo zokuzimela ngenxa yokunganaki zibekwa phakathi kwemingcele ethile. Phakathi nezimo eziphuthumayo zempilo yomphakathi, ngezinye izikhathi zinikeza isijeziso esiphazamisayo okwesikhashana ukukhuthaza ukubambisana ngezinyathelo eziphuthumayo noma ukukhokhela ukulimala. Ngokwesibonelo, izifunda eziningana ezifake ikhambi leCOVID elilinganiselwe enkathazweni ebekelwe abagcini bezempilo namabhizinisi, kodwa lezingwele zivame ukulondoloza ezinye izindlela zokunganaki okungathi sína noma ukuziphatha okubi kwamabomu. I-Convoct ingaboniswa futhi lapho uhulumeni esusa ngokuzithandela icala enkantolo yomthetho (ig., ngaphansi "ukugobeka icala elizimele" kwemfundiso"), kodwa lokho kulinganiselwe.

Izinhlangano Zempilo Yomphakathi Nezenzo ZoMbuso

Izimo eziphuthumayo zempilo yomphakathi zihlola imingcele yamandla kahulumeni nenkululeko yomuntu ngamunye. Icala le-senal lingu-Jacobson v. iMassachusetts (05), lapho iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela khona umthetho wesigungu sokugoma ingxibongo wedolobha ngokumelene nenqubo efanele. INkantolo yaqaphela ukuthi amaphoyisa anamandla amakhulu okuvikela impilo yomphakathi, uma kuqhathaniswa nokucabangela. Lesimiso siye sakhuthazela isikhathi esingaphezu kwekhulu leminyaka futhi sabizwa njalo phakathi nobhadaba lweCHOVAD ukuze sivikele izifihla - bukhali, izigwebo zezebhizinisi, neziqondiso zesikole.

Nokho, iziteshi azigonyiwe ekuhloleni komthetho-mthetho. uJacobson uhlaka lufuna ukuba isilinganiso esiphuthumayo sibe "sangempela noma esiqinile" empilweni yomphakathi futhi singabi "esobala, ukuhlaselwa okungathandekiyo kwamalungelo avinjelwe umthetho oyisisekelo." Ukugonyelwa komthetho oyisisekelo. Umthetho olawulayo kungavikela izimo ekuvimbeleni ukuvinjelwa okunjalo kokuhlasela, kodwa akusibeki imingcele yokukhululeka ngaphansi [ engaphandle kwengxenye yentsha. Ngakho, phakathi nomqeda, umdlandla weze womthetho omelene nezikhulu zezomthetho wafuna ukumiswa kwemiyalo yezempilo ezindaweni zomthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-siseko, ukuvinjelwa kwenkululeko yenkolo, isivikelo, nenqubo efanelekile, njengoba kuphumelele [FTLT] ku-Fom:[5] [5],[5], iziNkakhulu], lapho kuvinwe neziNkamenywa iziNkathiwe.

I - Nkosi EnguMbusi e - COVID - 19 Pandemic

Isifo se-COVOID-19 salungiselela indawo yokuhlola yangempela yezindawo zokuhlola imigwaqo yeqembu lokuzivikela komthetho wezenhlalakahle nomthetho wempilo yomphakathi. Izwe lamisa iziyalezo zezimo eziphuthumayo ezingakaze zibonwe ngaphambili, ziqhubekisela phambili amakhulu amacala. Izindawo ezintathu eziyinhloko zibonisa amandla angokomthetho.

Imithetho Emelene Nezikhulu ZoMbuso

Isuti eziningi zibekela i-COVID-19 iziyalo ze-covid ezibizwa ngokuthi ababusi bezwe, abaqondisi bempilo, noma izikhulu zendawo njengabamangalelwa, zifuna ukukhululeka. Ngaphansi Ex ngxenyee Young, la masudusi aqhubeka uma ethi ayaqhubeka ephula umthetho kahulumeni. Ngokwesibonelo, amabhizinisi aphikisa ukuthi iziqondiso zokuvala imingcele zaphikiswa ziphiwe isivikelo esilinganayo uma amabhizinisi ahlala evulekile. Izinkantolo eziningi zasebenzisa uJaconson[FLD] futhi, kuye ngesilinganiso esisobala, kuxhomeke erekhodini eyiqiniso, noma esekela noma ehlaseleni imiyalo. Umthetho awuzange uvikelo lwemithetho ngoba zifuna usizo olulindelekile, kodwa lapho izigebedi ezifuna ukukhokhwazwa yi-ogobo. [Foten] [Fod]

Ukuthatha Isinyathelo Sokubambisana Kwabenzi Bemithi Nezosizo

I-PREP Act inikeza abantu ukuzivikela okuvulekile ngaphansi koMthetho. Nokho, abenzi bemithi, izinkampani zezidakamizwa, kanye nezikhungo ezithile zezempilo . Ukulahlekelwa okuvela ekuqondiseni i-COVID-19. Lokhu kugonyelwa kudlulela ezimisweni zokugoma zikahulumeni ezithi "izinhlelo zokuhlela" ngaphansi koMthetho. Nokho, i-Act ayikuvumeli ukuvikela komthetho ngokwazo ngaphandle kokuba ibekwe ngaphansi kwe-'Act' yokungalawuleki ngenhloso, okudinga ubufakazi obucacile. Ekwenzeleni, izinkantolo eziningi zilahla izinhlangano zikahulumeni ngokuzilimaza ngengozi ezibangelwa yimijongo yomjovo, ziveza ukuvikelwa kwe-PrePP Act Act nezokuvikela umbuso njengezikhali ze-nkanti. Ngokwesibonelo, [FLDK] v.Sandroz, [FF2], [202], i-CFFF], i-P] inkantolo evikela umthetho enkantolo ephethe umthetho.

Imithetho Emelene Namazwe Ngezimiso Eziphuthumayo

Ezinye izifundazwe ezichaphazelekayo zikhokhiswa ngokuqondile ngenxa yokuvala imvume, ukuvala isikole, noma imingcele kwezebhizinisi. Lamasudi ngokuvamile ahluleka ngenxa yokuvikeleka kobuso bezwe. Ngokwesibonelo, Horne v. Georgia, iqembu labaphathi bebhizinisi abancane lafaka i-Georgia ngenxa yokulahlekelwa imali ngenxa yokukhokha ngenxa yemiyalo esemthethweni. Umbuso wawancenga ukuzivikela kombuso, futhi inkantolo yalahla izicelo, inganaki ukuthi umbuso wawungavumelangavumelanga isuti futhi ukuthi uHulumelo wawungenayo isivikelo esisemthethweni ngaphansi kweSiphetho se-Genear71. Ngokufanayo, abazali bafaka inselele ngokungekuvikelwa imvume yokumelana nomthetho ovimbela ukuvikelwa umthetho, njengoba umbuso omkhulu ungafuni ukuvikelwa kwemithetho yokuziza.

Ukulinganisela Umzimba Wesibalo Nempilo Yomphakathi

Imfundiso yokuvikela uhulumeni ekuzimelayo ibonisa ukukhetha okuyisisekelo kwe-unistism yaseMelika: izigodlo kufanele zikwazi ukubusa ngaphandle kosongo oluqhubekayo lwamacala ayimfihlo angaqeda imithombo yomphakathi futhi athathe isinyathelo esibandayo sobudlova phakathi nezinhlekelele. Nokho ukugoma okuphelele kungashiya abantu bengenalo ikhambi uma imibuso iphula amalungelo omthetho-sisekelo noma ibangela ukulimala okungalawuleki. Ukulinganisela phakathi kobukhosi nokulandisa kushaywa ngokungahleleki okuchazwe ngenhla, kodwa ukucindezeleka kuyaphikelela.

Phakathi nezimo eziphuthumayo zempilo yomphakathi, abakhi bezimiso kumelwe bahlole izici eziningana. Kwesinye isandla, ukuvikela komthetho kuvumela amazwe ukuba enze ngokuwujuqu (iziqondiso zokuhlukanisa abantu, ukukhipha imithi yokugoma, nokusebenzisa imithombo yemali (__________________________________ Ngaphandle kokwesaba ukulingwa okungapheli. Ngakolunye uhlangothi, abantu abalimala ngenxa yokuvinjelwa umthetho ngeke baphinde balindwe. Isimiso somthetho sincike ekuvinjelweni okungenangozi nokuvinjelwa kobugebengu (isimo, ngesibonelo, kwezikhulu ezikwazi ukuphula amalungelo omthetho) ukuze kugcwalise igebezo, kodwa lamakhambi awaphelele.

Ukusabela komthetho kuye kwahlongozwa ukucacisa ukuvikela komthetho phakathi nezikhathi eziphuthumayo. Ngokwesibonelo, i-Public Health Emergency Response Act (PHERA) esungulwe eSivumelwaneni ingadala imbangela kahulumeni yokuthatha isinyathelo ngokumelene nemibuso ethile ngenxa yokwephulwa kwamalungelo athile empilo yomphakathi. Nokho, umthetho onjalo ungadinga ukucacisa ukuthi isigaba sesilwelo sombuso sokuvikela uhulumeni esizimele ngaphansi kwesigaba 5 seSigqi seSigqi seNguquko se - 14, isiphakamiso somthetho wezwe. Amazwe ngokwawo athathe izikhundla ezinecala phakathi nezikhathi eziphuthumayo, kodwa lezi ziyahluka kakhulu. Ezinye, njengezaseNew York, izakhiwo zempilo nezindawo ezivikelekile kodwa zivumele izenzo ezimbi. Abanye, njengomthetho weTexas, ulungiselela ukuvikelwa okukhulu kwemithetho yezentengo yomthetho nesikole. Ingxenye yesifunda sezwe sidala imithetho nesezikole.

Izinkantolo ziphinde zalungisa ukulinganisela. Ku iShelby County v. Hoker (2013), iNkantolo Ephakeme yaxwayisa ngokuphambana kwe-omntral uhulumeni ekubuseni kukahulumeni, umuzwa ozwakalayo kumthetho wokuvikela izikhali ezizimele. Nokho iNkantolo iye yaqaphela futhi ukuthi amalungelo omthetho-mcuba kumelwe avikelwe, ngisho naphakathi kwezimo eziphuthumayo. South Bay United Pentecostal Church v. Newsom[FLT] [20020], iNkathi yeNkathi yenkululeko ekhumu engathiwe kodwa kamuva yathola eminye imingcele engalawuleki. Isigijimi sicacile ukuthi: ukuzivikela komthetho owesiwodwa, kodwa asigobezwangasi isimo sezikhulu zezekeli ezimpompi ngenxa yempatho ye-oglogobo.[Ft]

Imithombo yangaphandle inikeza ukucubungula okujulile. Ukuze ucazulule kabanzi isiHlanziso seSichibiyelo seshumi nanye kanye nokungahambisani naso, bheka i-Cornell Information Institute ye-Leagment ye-[. CD] CD's LeyoMnyango Wezempilo wasobala [[[FLT:]]] ihlela imithwalo yemithetho ye-gubhulo nomthwalo wezwe. [[FLT:] [FLT]] ichaza imithwalo yemfanelo yomthetho. [[FLT:]

Isiphetho

Ukuzivikela kombuso kulokhu kuyisivikelo esiyisisekelo sokuzibusa kukahulumeni, ikakhulukazi phakathi nezimo eziphuthumayo lapho ohulumeni bedinga ukwenza ngokushesha nangokuwujuqu. Imfundiso ivumela ababusi ukuba basebenzise izinyathelo zempilo yomphakathi ngaphandle komphumela ohlasimulisayo wempi. Nokho, ngaphandle kwe- ngokuphandle] ingxenye yemfundiso ethi Young iqinisekisa ukuthi abantu bangafuna ukukhululeka ngokushesha lapho amalungelo omthetho-sisekelo ephulwa. Umqedazwelo we-COVID-19 wabonisa inani lezokuvikeleka nokungashiyikho kokushiya abahluzekile ngaphandle kwembuyiselo. Njengoba izinsongo ezintsha zempilo yomphakathi ziqala, ukwakheka kwesidingo esingokomthetho sokuthatha isinyathelo esisheshayo sokulandisa.