Isimiso sokuvikela uhulumeni sobusosha singenye yezithiyo ezinkulu kakhulu ekubekeni ohulumeni becala enkantolo kahulumeni. Isekelwe eSichibiyelweni seshumi nanye, lemfundiso ngokwesiko ivikela ukuba ikhululwe ngaphandle kwemvume. Kodwa uma ukuphulwa kwamalungelo omphakathi kwenzeka ngesilinganiso esiwumthetho wesimiso, izimiso zobushiqela ezilinganiselwe, noma izinkonzo zomphakathi ezinganele, noma izimo ezingekho emthethweni, ukumangalelwa kwesigaba kuba amathuluzi abalulekile ekhambisweni. Ukumiswa kwemithetho yesimiso sokuzivikela kombuso nezimiso zamalungelo abantu kwenza ukuba isakhiwo esingokomthetho sithathiwe ngobunkimbinkimbinkimbi, kufune ukuba i-tentena eqekelweni yemithetho engokomthetho, inqubo ephakeme yeNkanto engokomthetho, nenqabayodwa. Lesi sihloko sihlola izimo zemfundiso yokuziphendukela kwemvelo, ukunganaki, nokusetshenziswa kwenkantolo lapho isigaba esivamile sifuna ukuvikela ekulungiseni noma ekulungiseni izinhlu zesigaba sesigaba.

Imvelaphi Engokomlando Yombuso Wobukhosi

Ngaphambi kweNguquko yaseMelika, umthetho ovamile waseNgilandi wawuthi uMqhele awunakuqulwa ngaphandle kwemvume yawo. Imibuso yaseMelika esanda kwakhiwa yazuza lesi simiso njengefa, kodwa ukusebenza kwayo esimisweni sikahulumeni kwavivinywa ngokushesha. Ngo-1793, iNkantolo Ephakeme yanquma Shisholm v. Georgia, 2 U.S 419 (1793), ivumela isakhamuzi esizimele esivela eSouth Carolina ukuba singene eGeorgia. Isinqumo sabangela intukuthelo phakathi kwezifundazwe, ezazisaba ukulawulwa kwezwe ngezwe kuMcebo wezwe.

Ekuphenduleni, uKhomuko lwadlulisele iSichibiyelo seshumi nanye ngo-1795, lwagunyaza ngo-1798, oluthi: “Nakuba amandla okwahlulela e-United States engeke athathwe ukuba adlulisele kunoma yisiphi isambatho emthetho noma kuphi, aqala noma amangalelwe noma amangalelwe izakhamuzi zase-United States ngezakhamuzi zomunye uHulumeni, noma yiZizwe noma iZiqu zanoma isiphi Isifundazwe.” Nakuba umbhalo wayo kuphela wenqabela izakhamuzi zezwe ukuba zingene ngokumelene nezakhamuzi zase-Expompactive, iNkantolo Ephakeme ngokushesha yandisa isilinganiso sesilinganiso semithetho engokomthetho. . v], [1] , [1] [1] .S.18900 [iNkantolo yeNkantolo yeSimendo ebekwe yi-Exption eyisambusweni sesizwe esiphethe sombuso sanamuhla.

Isihluthulelo sokuthatha indawo:[ ukuzivikela kobukhosi akusona nje ibhande lobuchwepheshe `ibonisa ukulinganisela komthetho-sisekelo phakathi kwegunya likahulumeni nesithunzi sikahulumeni, okuye kwaqiniswa izinkantolo njalo emakhulwini amabili eminyaka.

Umsebenzi Wanamuhla: ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nanye Nangaphezulu

Isimiso sokuvikela somthetho sobusosha sanamuhla siqaphela ukulinganiselwa okubili okuyisisekelo emacaleni angewona amagunya. Okokuqala, umbuso ungasho ukuvikeleka ngokuvuma ukuvikela kwawo ngokulingana. Okwesibili, i-Crectal [ ukuvikela [izinsonga] lapho usebenza ngaphansi kwemithetho-mthetho-mfutho-mthetho-mthethweni [iSigaxa 5 seSikhawu seNguqulo se-145], esigunyaza umthetho wokuphoqesha amalungelo omphakathi. Ngaphezu kwalokho, [[[FLT:]] ingxenye yentsha [[FLT]] ivumela imfundiso ifanele ukuvikela izikhulu, isusa isimo ngokwaso ngokwesimo esingokomthetho njengommeleli.

INkantolo Ephakeme iye yawahlaziywa ngokucophelela lapho uMkhandlu ungasalawuleka. . [FTRITpatrick v. BITY, 427 U.S.197], iNkantolo yathi iSigaxa 5 seSigqi seSigqi seshumi nambili sivumela ulwelo lweSiphendulo sombuso ukuba lungalawuleki. Kodwa kamuva izenzakalo zilinganisela amandla: ku [FLT:] SAYULELTYLE FLOB of Florida v.[FFFOL:3], 517], U.S.19666), iNkantolo inqume ukuthi i-Court ngeke i-gement ingasebenzi ngaphansi kweSiphakathi Imithetho I-Ige (g.g.64] ngaphandle kokuba umthetho ubeke izikhawulo-kade ka-Fog.[5] i-Fognum)

Ngezenzo zesigaba samalungelo omphakathi, lokhu kusho ukuthi izimiso ezinjengesihloko VI soMthetho wamalungelo omphakathi, i-Title IX, noma i-Catego 1983 kumelwe zihlolwe ngokucophelela ukuze kuhlolwe ukuthi uKhongolose lungawavikeli amacala ombuso agunyaziwe. Ngokuvamile, okuwukuphela kwendlela esebenzayo ukumangalela izikhulu zikahulumeni ngenxa yokukhululeka okungalawuleki ngaphansi Exte Young , kunokuba zifune imali encipheni umonakalo kuhulumeni ngokwawo.

Izindawo Ezikhethekile Ezinhlamvwini Zokuhlangana KoMbusi

Iwaiver Evela Embusweni

Umbuso ungase uvume ngokucace ngokungathi sína ukuvumelana nomthetho noma ngokuhlanganyela ngokuzithandela esimisweni sikahulumeni lapho izimo zihlanganyela ekuthatheni i-parency Court. Nokho, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yathi abahluli kumelwe babe “abachazi-kungatshazelwa” futhi ngeke baboniswe. College Saving Bank v. Florida Predireary Postsevary Education Board [[FLLT:1], 527] U.S. 666 (1999) yalahla umbono wokuthi imisebenzi kahulumeni ezimaketheli ngokuzenzakalelayo. Izenzo zekilasi, ngokuvamile zibheka ukuthi zisholoza noma eminye imithetho enikeza imvume elinganiselwe, kodwa enikeza imvume enjalo enikezwa amalungelo ephakathi.

Ukudlondlobala Kwenhlangano Ngaphansi Kwengxenye 5

UKhomishane ungavikela i-Brouted uma (1) isho inhloso yayo yokwenza kanjalo ngokomthetho, futhi (2) isebenza ngaphansi kwegunya elisemthethweni. Umthombo othembekile yiSiqeshana 5 seSichibiyelo seshumi nane leMinyaka Enethi. Nevada Depart of Human Resources v. , 538 U.S. 721 (2003), iNkantolo isekela iSiphakamiso soMzali ne-Medical Act ngenxa yokuzimela ngenxa yokucwaswa kwemithetho ngenxa yokucwaswa kwabesifazane. Ngokuphambene, [FOLT:] Colea. iNkanto ye-Macawale ka-Mary [FOLD], i-UM.[5], i-U.[30], u-US.

Kumongo wesigaba samalungelo abantu, abasho ukuthi ukucwaswa kwezinhlanga ngaphansi kwesihloko VI noma i-Title IX ngokuvamile kubhekene nempi ekhuphukayo ngenxa yokuthi leyomithetho yamiswa ngaphansi kwe-Pallal Claus, hhayi i-Grate 5. Nakuba isho ukuthi ukwamukela izimali zikahulumeni ngokusikisela ukuthi zifanele ukuphulwa kwezimo zesivumelwano, ikhambi lilinganiselwe ekunikezeni usizo noma ukuqedwa kwemali (hhhayi ukulahlekelwa kwemali). Icala eliyinhloko [[FLT: 0] Penshurst State School ne Hos. Halderman, 465.U.S (19984) lalikholelwa ukuthi umthetho kaClaus awusebenzi umthetho owenzile wokuvikela ukuvikela.

Ukukhululeka Kwasebancane Nokulindele

Ithuluzi elinamandla kakhulu lezenzo zesigaba samalungelo omphakathi ezimelene nezifundazwe yi- Ex ex Young imfundiso. Ex ngxenyee Young, 209 U.S. 123 (1988), iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela ukuthi isikhulu sezwe esiphoqelela umthetho ongagunyaziyo ukhutshwe isogodulo futhi singafakwa esimweni esingaphambili sokukhululeka. Lendaba eqashelwayo iphethe ukuziphatha kwesikhulu njenge-vrent. Imfundiso ivumela isigaba ukuba senze imisebenzi yesigaba ngokumelene nezikhulu zikahulumeni (umz., umqondisi wejele, imfundo, ikhomishana yeze yempilo) ukuba inqandwe ngaphandle kokuziqamba isifunda isifunda.

Ubukhulu be- Ex e Young bubanzi kodwa bungenamkhawulo. Kuvumela kuphela ukubheka phambili-impumuzo---odor (ama-order ukuze aqede imikhuba ethile noma athathe izinyathelo zokuyekelela). Edelman v. Jordan, 415 U.S. 651104) icacisa ukuthi izingozi zempicaba ziyavinjelwa ngisho noma isikhulu singummangalelwa. Ngakho, izenzo zekilasi ezifuna izinguquko ezingokwesimiso sezenkampane (g., zilungisa izimo zejele, ukukhubazeka kwezikole, ukufinyelela ezinkonzweni zokukhubazeka) zingcono kungcono kulokhu kukhiqiniswa, kuyilapho ukukhokhwa kwenkomba noma ukukhokhwawa kwe-obhunyulwa.

Izenzo Zobunye BoMbusi Ngamalungelo Omphakathi: Izinselele Eziyinhloko

Izenzo zekilasi zandisa kokubili amandla nezihibe zokuvikela ubukhosi. Uma ikilasi lifakazelwa ngokumelene nenxusa noma isikhulu sikahulumeni, izinkantolo kumelwe kuqala zinqume ukuthi umbuso ungumuntu onesithakazelo ngempela yini. Uma usizo olufunwayo lungaqeda umcebo wemali kahulumeni, ngokunokwenzeka luyasebenza. Lokhu ngokuvamile kuholela ekuhlaseleni okungalawuleki: ikilasi kumelwe liqale likwazi ukumelana necebo lokuxosha isisekelo sokuzivikela ngaphambi kokuba lifinyelele ukutholwa kwalendawo.

Enye impikiswano ephindaphindwayo yimali yemali ka-. Ngisho noma ikilasi liwina ukukhululeka, ingakhokhwa inkantolo impoqo yokulwa nombuso? Ngaphansi kwe-Civil Rights Attorney’s Feard Act [42] Act ka 1976 (42 U.S.C. 1988), izimali zingaklonyeliswa ngokumelene nombuso kuphela uma uhulumeni ethola isivikelo sokuzivikela esiqinile noma uma iSishayamthetho sivumele imvume yokuvikela imingcele yemiklomelo engokomthetho ngenxa yenkokheni engokomthetho. Inkantolo ephakeme ku-[Foct:2] [Foctives.[Foctive3] [FFoct:]], u-U.67]

Enye inselele ingu- i-creadding ngokwayo. Ukuzivikela kombuso kungathinta isimo nokungagunyazi kophawu uma abamangalelwa befuna ukulahlekelwa kwemali kuyilapho ikilasi lifuna usizo olungenalusizo kuphela. Izinkantolo zingafuna amahlelo ahlukene noma zingalinganisela incazelo yesigaba kubantu abafuna ukukhululeka okulindelekile kuphela. Ngaphezu kwalokho, uma umbuso ungewona iqembu eliqanjwe ngegama, ukhombisa ummangalelwa ofanele.[1] Isikhulu sikahulumeni esinegunya lokusebenzisa ushintsho oluceliwe.

Ithonya Ezinhlotsheni Zokwelapha Ezikhona

Uhulumeni ovikelayo uwehlisa kakhulu amakhambi angatholakala isigaba samalungelo abantu. Ngezansi kufushaniswe izinhlobo zosizo ezivamile kanye nokukwazi kwazo ukumelana nemfundiso egonyelweyo:

  • Ukukhululeka okunciphileyo (ukuhlola): ngokuvamile kuvunyelwe ['ex ngxenyee Young kubaphathi bombuso. Izibonelo: uhlelo lokuguqula izinqubo zegebe, indawo yokuhlala ezikhubazekile, noma idinga izinkonzo zokuhumusha ezinhlanganweni zomphakathi.
  • Ukukhululeka kokukhipha izigwegwe: ngokuvamile kuvunyelwe uma kufeza injongo ebheke phambili, kodwa izinkantolo zihlukanisa phakathi kwezimemezelo zecala elidlule (elivunyelwe) nezibopho zesikhathi esizayo.
  • Umonakalo we-Monetary (ukuhlola): uvinjelwe kakhulu ngaphandle kokuba umbuso uwenqabe isimiso sokuzivikela (ukwehla) noma i-Congress ngokusemthethweni ifakwe ngaphansi kwesiqephu 5 (izihlomo zokubukeza okuqinile-kuhlanganisayo). Isihloko esikhulu se-IX, isihloko se-IX, nesigaba sonyaka ka-1934 sihluleka ukumelana nale mithetho engaphambili.
  • Intela ye-Attorney:[ ingemukeleki uma iboshelwe ekuqabuleni futhi iphathwa njenge-active, kodwa isengozini yokubekela inselele uma umklomelo ubhekwa njengenkokhelo ekhokhekayo evela emphongweni wezimali.

Ngakho - ke iseluleko sekilasi kufanele siqale kuqala ekukhipheni izigwegwe lapho bebamangalelwa. Ukuze baqambe umonakalo, kungadingeka baqambe amagama amaqembu kahulumeni wendawo (amazwe, omasipala) angavikelwe yisimiso sokuvikela ukuvikela uhulumeni (noma afune izisudi ezizimele ngokumelene nezikhulu zikahulumeni zezikhali, nakuba ulwelwelo olufanelekayo lunikeza olunye ulwelwelwesi oluvikela.

Ukucatshangelwa Okufanele KwamaPlaintiff

Kudingeka ukuba ukuhlolwa kwamalungelo abantu ngempumelelo kuhlolwe ukuhlolwa kwasekuqaleni kokuzivikela kobukhosi. Okokuqala, thola ukuthi ummangalelwa uyinhlangano yezwe ngempela noma uyingalo kahulumeni. Izici zihlanganisa indlela lento exhaswe ngayo, ukuthi ingagwenywa noma imangalelwe, nokuthi izikweleti zayo ziyizikweleti zikahulumeni. [Izigebethi zeYunivesithi yaseCalifornia v. Doe, 519 U.S. 425.1997]

Okwesibili, nquma uhlobo lokukhululeka okufunwayo. Uma ukulimala kwemali kubalulekile, cabangela ukuthi uKhongolose uphethe ngokusemthethweni yini ukuzivikela ngaphansi komthetho ohlangana neBoerne v. Flores i-congrue-evision-proparence indinganiso. Uma kungenjalo, hlela ukukhomba izikhulu ezisesikhundleni sazo segunya esingokomthetho sokunikeza usizo kuphela, futhi ucabangele ukwenezela igophelo ngalinye elimelene nenkokhelo ethile yemali ye-pucrectal.

Okwesithathu, ihlola ukuvivinya uhulumeni. Ezinye izifundazwe ziye zamisa imithetho yemvume yokuvumela ukuthatha-izenzo ezithile zamalungelo omphakathi − kodwa lezi ngokuvamile zibeka izimfuneko noma izikepisi ekuqapheleni umonakalo. Izenzo zesigaba kanye nemithetho yokuqaphela ingase ingqubane nezinqubo zikahulumeni, ngakho kuyadingeka ukuhlanganisa okucophelelayo.

Okwesine, sebenzisa imfundiso ehlukile ngisho nalapho umbuso uyisisulu sangempela. Ihele ukukhononda okubiza unobhala wezwe obalulekile, umphathi, noma umqondisi onegunya, futhi ucacise ngokucacile ukuthi ukukhululeka okuceliwe kulindeleke ukuba /ukubenza bayeke ukwephula umthetho kahulumeni. Gwema noma yiluphi ulimi olusikisela ukwahlulela ngengozi edlulile.

Okokugcina, cabangela ukuhlobana kwemithetho efanayo enkantolo yombuso. Nakuba ukuvikela kobubusi nakho kusebenza enkantolo yombuso, izifunda eziningi zifake ukuzivikela kakhulu ngaphansi kwemithetho-mthetho yazo siqu noma imithetho. Nokho, izenzo zesigaba enkantolo yesifundazwe zingaphakamisa ezinye izithiyo ezihlanganisayo, njengezindinganiso ezihlukene zemvume noma imingcele yokususa enkantolo yezwe.

Intuthuko Yamuva Neziqondiso Zesikhathi Esizayo

INkantolo Ephakeme iyaqhubeka icwengisisa imfundiso yokuvikela kokuzivikela komthetho womthetho, kanye nemiphumela yezenzo zesigaba samalungelo omphakathi. Torres v. Umnyango weTexas we-Precule Safety, 597 U.S._2022), iNkantolo yasekela ukuthi iTexas yawaphula amasu emali yayo ngokumukela izimali zikahulumeni ngaphansi kwe-Unifecter Rescrectment Rights Act (USSRA). Umqondo .[1] Ukuthi ukuhlanganyela ezinhlelweni zezinhlelo zikahulumeni kunikeza imvume entsha yezifundo zekilasi ngaphansi kokuchitha umthetho owenziwayo, inikeza i-scrediotive i-octive Servicesssss Act.

Allen v. Cooper, 589 U.S._20], iNkantolo yashaya i-Remedia Conficiation Act ye-comedification Act ye-codect ka-[Flarect:] iqinisekisa ukuthi ibha yaseqo ephezulu yecandelo 5 lomthetho. Imithetho yamalungelo abantu njengaseMelika enokuphazamiseka komthetho (ADA), iNkantolo [[FLT:] [FLT]] [2001] [200]] iphethe ukuthi iSihlombe I (impatho) asigunyaziwe igebo, kanti isihloko II (inkonzo yasobala) sisalokhu sixazululiwe ngokuphelele. [[FLT] EUnited States [5], UFLT], u-U.[5] U.C.6] Inkantolo evimbela ukuvikelwa kwezethu yejele (ibhul.6, i-C.4]

Uma bebheka phambili, odokotela bekilasi kufanele baqaphele imithetho emisha noma ukulungisa imithetho ekhona evikela amalungelo omphakathi. Isicelo esithi “Imithetho Yomthetho” nezinye izinguquko zelungelo lokuvota, uma zimisiwe, zingahlanganisa amalungiselelo okucwasa. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ukuqaphela okwandayo kobandlululo lokwakha (umz., ukuhlelwa kwemithetho, imfundo yomphakathi, kanye nokunakekelwa kwempilo) kungashukumisela izinkantolo ukuba ziphinde ziphinde zifake isigaba se-Young . [[FLT]]

Isiphetho

Isimiso sokuvikela uhulumeni sihlala sinzima, kodwa asisona isithiyo esingenakunqotshwa, ekuthatheni isigaba samalungelo abantu. ISichibiyelo seshumi nenye sibonisa izindinganiso ezijulile zomthetho-sisekelo we-somfa, kodwa kumelwe zinikeze lapho izizwe ziphula uMthetho-sisekelo ngokwazo. Ngokusebenzisa ngokucophelela umehluko imfundiso eqinile, ukuhlasela kwezikhulu zikahulumeni, nokuhlaziywa kwemithetho yokuhlanganisa i-brogracy ne-raviver, ama-paintsff angathola inguquko empumulweni yezifundo ezithintekayo. Nokho, indlela yokulimaza inciphe kakhulu, ngokuvamile ifuna abamangali abameleli noma inkantolo. Njengoba iNkanto ephakeme iyaqhubeka ihlela imingcele yokuvikela, izigebengu, kumelwe iqhubeke ilandela izikhulu zeze zeze ze-ogconsonce, izikhulu zeze futhi izikhulu zeze ze-ogracle.

Ukuze ufunde ngokwengeziwe, hlola [[[FLT: 0] i-Cornell Information Institute ukubukezwa kwemfundiso yokuzivikela komzimba , umbhalo ogcwele we [[FLT:]] ISigqizelo seSigqibo [[FLT] [[FLT]] [[FLT]], kanye necala lengqoko yesandla [[FLT:][FLT]][FLT:[FLT:][12]][10][10] [12]] [12]