Umsuka Nenjongo Yobukhosi BukaHulumeni

Imfundiso yokugonyelwa kwesimiso sokuzimela uhulumeni ingenye yezimiso ezihlala njalo nezilandelana kakhulu kumthetho-mthetho-mthetho-sisekelo waseMelika. Isekelwe emthethweni wesiNgisi ovamile .'elapho inkosi ingenakumangalelwa ngaphandle kwemvume yayo, yafakelwa noma yabekwa i-Parentsburgy eUnited States futhi yabekwa eSichibiyelweni seshumi nanye. Ulimi oluqondile lwenguquko lufundeka: “Amandla omthetho we-United States ngeke athathwe anyuselwe kunoma yisiphi isithsaba somthetho noma ukuvumelana, aqala noma aqulwa ngokuqulwa nesinye sezakhamuzi zaseUnited States, noma izakhamuzi noma izihloko zanoma yisiphi isifundazwe samazwe angaphandle.”

Nakuba umbhalo ubonakala uwumngcingo, iNkantolo Ephakeme ikuchaza kabanzi ukuthi izifundazwe ziyagonywa emacaleni azimele enkantolo kahulumeni ngaphandle kokuba uMkhandlu unqume ukuthi lowo wokuzivikela noma umbuso ngokwawo uye wawulahla. Lesi simiso asisebenzi kuphela lapho ummangalelwa evela kwesinye isifundazwe kodwa futhi uma isikhulu simangalela umbuso wazo siqu `a isikhundla seNkantolo esenziwe sacaca v. Louisiana[FLT: 1] [18]. Ukulunga kunezingaphambano: ukulondoloza izibo zezehlulelo zecala ezivela enkantolo yombuso futhi kuhlonipha isithunzi nobukhosi bohulumeni phakathi kwesimiso sombuso.

Nokho, phakathi namashumi eminyaka, izinkantolo ziye zaveza okuhlukile okukhulu, ikakhulukazi lapho kuphakama imithetho yamalungelo abantu kahulumeni. Ukuqonda lapho ukulwela ukubusa kwabantu nokuqala kwelungelo lokusiza kubalulekile kunoma ubani ohileleke ekuqikelweni kwamalungelo omphakathi, kusukela emacaleni kuya kwabasekeli bezimiso.

Indlela Imizamo Yokubambisana Emacala Omphakathi Amalungelo Omphakathi

Ukugcinwa kwamalungelo omphakathi ngokuvamile kuxhomeke emithethweni kahulumeni enjengo - 42 U.S.C. . 1983, iSihlokwana VII soMthetho Wamalungelo Omphakathi ka - 1964, amaMelika anoMthetho (ADA), noMthetho Wokukhubazeka Wenkathi KuMthetho Wezomsebenzi (ADEA).

Ingxenye Ka - 1983

42 U.S.C. .1998 inikeza isizathu sokuthatha isinyathelo kunoma yimuphi umuntu, ngaphansi kombala womthetho kazwelonke, ophuca omunye amalungelo kahulumeni noma e-stateory. Nokho, iNkantolo Ephakeme iphethe ukuthi isimo ngokwaso asiyona “i-person” ngaphansi kuka-1963. Lokhu kusho ukuthi nakuba ummangali wezikhulu zezwe angamangalela izikhulu zikahulumeni ngokufaka noma ngokukhipha imvume, azinakukho ukukhokha ngokuqondile impoqo yemali ngaphansi kuka-196483. Umsebenzi ovamile awukho yingxenye yeYoung, ngaphandle kwalokho, ovumela ukuba izikhulu zimelane amandla azo embusweni engokomthetho ukunqanda ukuphazwa komthetho. Ngaphansi kwalomthetho ohlukene, isikhulu esihosho ukuthi asizange sikhululwe ngenxa yokukhohlise intengongo.

Isihloko U - VII Nesivikelo SikaClaus Esilinganayo

Isihloko VII senqabela ukucwaswa kwemisebenzi okusekelwe ngokohlanga, ibala, inkolo, ubulili, nemvelaphi yobuzwe. Abaqashi bakahulumeni bangaphansi kwesihloko se-VII, kodwa ngenxa nje yokuthi uMkhandlu ugunyaziwe ngokusemthethweni ukuvikela uhulumeni ngaphansi kweSiqeshi 5 seSigqi Samanyunde se-145. Fitztick v.[[FLT][197] [197], iNkanto ePhakathi yeNkathi yeNkantolo lapho ifaka isiqinisekiso seSiphekemende seSiphendulo se 1450. Lokhu kuvulile umnyango weshelo ngokumelene nabaqashi ngaphansi kweSihloko VII. Nokho, ububanzi begunya elinguqulo kumelwe ukuba buhlale. [FLT] kungene i-Bocren.[Flen][3][9][9] [iKlectret] [iKroult], i-Arvementssion Tregdentine, ingu engu-5]

I - ADA Ne - ADEA: Ukuxoshwa Okuphazamisekile

I-American Act enokuphazamiseka ihlanganisa inkulumo ecacile yenhloso kaKhongolo enqanda ukuvinjelwa kwezwe. Nokho, i-Board of Trustees of University of Alabama v. Garrett (2001], iNkantolo Ephakeme ibekelwe imingcele yokuthi ukukhubazeka, iphethe lesosihloko se-ADA (imisebenzi) ngaphezu kweSiqeshana se-Congress Congress I ngxenye 5 ngenxa yokuthi umbhalo wemithetho wezwe wabonisa ubandlululo olubanzi kubantu abakhubazekile. Ngokungafani, iSihlokwana II se-ADA (inkonzo zasobala) siye savinjelwa njengemvume esemthethweni yenkantolo ethile kuphela. Ngokufana, i-ADE'aBB'acromed' yashaywa ngokuncitshiswa kwe-'intervelvel. [2] Umthetho we-Fod Kgen) ngenxa yeNkathi yeNkanto engokomthetho we-ogromestting.[3]

Izinqumo Eziyinhloko Zenkantolo Ephakeme Ziveza Imikhawulo

Imithetho eminingana ephawulekayo iye yathonya imingcele yanamuhla yokulwela amalungelo omphakathi ekuqinisweni kwamalungelo omphakathi.

[[UMTH:0] Exte Young (1908)

Lesi sinqumo sabangela ukuhlukana okukhulu kakhulu nesimiso sokuzimela esizimele. INkantolo yavumela isuti elimelene nesikhulu sikahulumeni waseMinnesota ukuba liyale ukugcinwa komthetho kahulumeni okuthiwa wephula imithetho kajantshi kahulumeni. Indaba eqanjiwe, njengoba iNkantolo yachaza, yayiwukuthi isikhulu esithatha isimilo ngokungemthetho sincishisiwe futhi singamangalelwa njengelungu. Lokhu kuhlala kuyimoto eyinhloko yokungavumelani nemithetho nemithetho kahulumeni. Nokho, asivumi izindleko zokukhokhwa kwesikhulu.

USeminole Tribe of Florida v. Florida (1996)

Icala lalihilela i-Indiya Gaminaling Regugatation Act, iNkantolo yathi iNkantolo ayinakuvumelana nesimiso sombuso sokuzimela ngaphansi kweSiphakamiso I, njenge-Centry Claussia noma i-Bankructcy Clause. Icala lalihilela i-Indiya Gamigatation Act, leyo i-ompetation eyaphikiswayo eyayingenakuyibeka ngaphansi kwe-Florida. Lesinqumo savumelana kakhulu, iNkantolo, ukulwa [[FOL:2] ukulwa kwemithetho ye-Calnynylian v.[FLT] Co. [19] [19] kanye] kanye nokunqanda kakhulu amandla okusekela ngaphandle kwe-premitencerth. Le sinqumo sihlanganisa kakhulu amalungelo omphakathi asolwe yi-Clausussssssss producerreat) ye-AD projectives (ixmarreaserrease

[[UMTH:0]Alden v. Maine (1999)

Icala elihilela ukugonyelwa kwemithetho ephezulu enkantolo yesifundazwe, liphethe ukuthi isimiso somthetho ngokomthetho se-sobushiqela se-gate shart sudu yeshefu elungelweni lombuso ngaphandle kokuba imvume kahulumeni noma iSishaya-mthetho ivume amabhuloho ngaphansi kwesigaba 5. Icala elihilela ukukhokha imali engeziwe ngaphansi kwe-Fair Labor Standard Act. Inkantolo yanquma ukuthi ngisho noma uhulumeni uvume ukuvumelana nezinkantolo zawo, ligcina isivikelo ezinkonzweni zikahulumeni ngaphandle kokuba iSishaya - mthetho sifakwe ngokufanelekile. Lokhu kusho ukuthi amalungelo omphakathi amacala ahlukene angenakwenza nje aphume enkantolo enkantolo engokomthetho futhi i - sue enkantolo; isekela isimo kungakhathaliseki ukuthi inkantolo i-um.

FATPARIC v. Bitzer (1976]

Njengoba kuphawuliwe, lelicala laqinisekisa ukuthi iSishaya-mthetho singavimbela ukuvinjelwa lapho sibekwa ngaphansi kwe-Candelo 5 yeSichibiyelo se-14. Isinqumo sagunyaza uhlelo lwanamuhla: ISiphakamiso I sokulqwala asikho ngemva ] USAMUNOLE TH, kodwa Isiqephu 5 sokukhucululwa sisa, sincishiswe ukubukezwa kwe-acero.

Izicelo Ezingokoqobo Zokuphoqelelwa Kwamalungelo Omphakathi

Usizo Olubi Lusatholakala

Naphezu kwezithiyo, abantu bangathola impumuzo enengqondo. Iziyalezo zokungaphulwa komthetho-mthetho okuqhubekayo − njengokungalungi kwamaphoyisa, izimo zejele lokuphoqelela, noma ukutholakala okungalingani kwenzuzo — kuhlala kuphila ngaphansi expatee Young. Ama-attorney avame ukusebenzisa lendlela ukuze anqande imikhuba ephula iSiphendulo Sokuqala, i-Act Programme Claine, noma i-Actal Protectal Classiale. Nokho, ikhambi lilinganiselwe ekubhekeni phambili impumuzo: akukho miphumelo engozini.

Umonakalo Usalokhu Unzima Ukuphinde Ululame

Ukuhluleka ukumangalela imbuyiselo yemali emelene nombuso ngokwawo kuyigebe elikhulu. Izisulu zokwephulwa kwamalungelo omphakathi zingalahlekelwa iholo, izindleko zezokwelapha, noma ukucindezeleka okungokomzwelo kodwa zingakwazi ukuphinde zilulame emphongweni wezimali kahulumeni. Kwezinye izimo, zingafuna umonakalo kuziphathimandla ezisebenza ngokwazo, kodwa lezozikhulu ngokuvamile zivikelwa yisimiso sokuvikela esifanelekayo. Ingxubevange yokuvikela ukuvikela kobusolwa kwamalungelo omphakathi nezokuvikela ukuvikela isimilo. Abasekeli benguquko baye basikisela ukuthi kuyashintsha ngo-1901 1983 ukuze bachaze isimo njengomuntu noma ukudlulisa umthetho oshukumisa ukuvikelwa kwesimiso sokuzivikela njengesimo sokwamukela izimali zikahulumeni.

Isifundazwe SaseWaiver Nesivumelwano

Izwe lingase lizithathele ukuzivikela kwalo hulumeni ngokuzithandela. Izwe lizithathele unyawo ukumelana nesimiso sokuzimela. Izwe lidinga “ukuboniswa ngokunganaki” futhi lithathwe ngokungenaphutha. Ngokwesibonelo, uhulumeni othatha izimali zikahulumeni ze-Medicaid ngokuvame ukuphazamisa ukuvinjelwa kwezinye izinqubo zokuphatha, kodwa ukuthi ukunqanda ukulahlekelwa kunganwebela ezenzweni zomuntu siqu. Ngokufanayo, imibuso eminingi iye yazenzela izenzo zayo zokuzivumela ukonakala okuthile, kodwa ngokuvamile lokhu kufaka amasudi noma ukuvala amasuntwana amalungelo omphakathi. I-Athorney kumelwe ihlole ngokucophelela icebo lokuvala umthetho nelungiselelo elisebenzayo.

Izimpahla Ezimelene Nohulumeni

Okubalulekile, ukugonyelwa kwesimiso sokuvikela ukubusa akunakwenziwa kohulumeni bendawo. Ohulumeni, izikole, iziqu, nezinye izigaba zezombangazwe zithathwa “abantu” ngaphansi kuka 2016 1983 futhi zingamangalelwa ngakho kokubili ukukhululeka nokulimala kwemali. Lokhu kwakha indlela ephawulekayo yamaphekula alimazayo eminyangweni yamaphoyisa endawo, izikole zomphakathi, noma izinhlangano zedolobha. Nokho, icala linamathela kuphela lapho isimiso noma isiko likamasipala libangela ukwephulwa, njengoba kwasungulwa v. UMonell. Umnyango wezenhlalakahle wezenhlalakahle yezenhlalakahle [FLD] [12:1] [17]]

Intuthuko Yamuva Nezinselele Ezixazululayo

Eshumini leminyaka elidlule, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yaphendula imibuzo eminingi ebalulekile ethinta ngokuqondile ukugcinwa kwamalungelo abantu.

Izindaba Zomuntu Siqu Nezikhulu ZoMbuso

Jorres v. Madrid [2021], iNkantolo yandisa incazelo yokuthatheka kweSichibiyelo sesine kodwa ayizange ibhekise ngqo ekuvikeleni ubukhosi. Nokho, amacala ahilela ukuziphatha okubi kwamaphoyisa ayaqhubeka ehlola imingcele. Ngokwesibonelo, uma isikhulu sikahulumeni siphula ilungelo elicacile, isikhulu esingase sifake ishende ngenxa yemali esenzekile, kodwa isifunda ngokwaso sihlala siso sokuzivikela. Lokhu kusho ukuthi izahlulelo eziphethe izikhulu kumelwe zikhokhelwe ngokomuntu siqu noma ngesifundazwe, kodwa ukumiswa kwezwe kungokomthetho kungumthetho owenziwa ngesinqumo futhi kungumehluko omkhulu.

Izindawo Zomphakathi Ne - ADA

Fulton v. City of Philadelphia (2021]), iNkantolo yanquma ukukhulula okungokwenkolo ngokunakekela kodwa futhi ayizange ikhulume ngokuqondile ngokuvikela ubukhosi. Nokho, icala laqokomisa ukungezwani okuqhubekayo phakathi kwegunya likahulumeni namalungelo omphakathi. Izinkantolo eziningi eziphansi ziyaqhubeka zibeka indiva ukuthi iziphakamiso eziqondile ngaphansi kweSihlomo II se-ADA − njengokungena ezinkantolo, ukuvota, noma ukuthutha obala. Inkantolo iye yathi iSihlomelo II sisemthethweni kuphela uma isho ukuthi amalungelo esonto abalulekile njengawokuvota, ukungenela izinkantolo, noma ukungenela imishado.

Imizamo Yobumbano Yokubuyisela Ukudlondlobala

Izindleko eziningi ziye zafakwa kuKhomishane ukuze zinqanyulwe izikweleti ze-OB [FLT kanye ne-Alden [ ngokufaka izivumelwano zikahulumeni ekuthatheni igalelo kuhlelo lwesimiso sokunqanda ukunqanda ukunqanda. Ukuthethelela Actal Act [FLD kanye ne-[FLT] Convil Rights Act 2023 isho ukuthi ukwamukela izimali kumelwe kuvumelane ngokufanelekile enkantolo kahulumeni ngenxa yokuphula amalungelo abantu. Le mizamo idinga noma iziphi izinselele zemfundo engokomthetho ngaphansi kwemfundiso ka-Clauscaus, ezidinga ukuba izimali ezihlobene nenzuzo ehlangene nenzuzo yombuso.

Izindlela Eziqhubekayo Zokusekela Amalungelo Omphakathi

Ngenxa yendawo eyinkimbinkimbi, odokotela kumelwe basebenzise izindlela eziwusizo zokusebenzisa ukuzivikela ezifweni.

Sebenzisa I - parte Encane Eyingqayizivele Ngolaka

Lapho kukhulunywa ngokuphulwa kwemithetho okuqhubekayo noma okusongelayo, ukufuna umyalo omelene nesikhulu sikahulumeni esikhethekile ngokuvamile kuyindlela esheshayo yokukhululeka.

Gxila Engxenyeni 5 Imithetho

Isenzo sombuso esihlanganisa imithetho eqonde kakhulu ukumiswa kwamalungelo abantu kumthetho weSichibiyelo seshumi nane singaqinisa ukuvalwa kwemithetho. Abameli kufanele bakhuthaze ukutholwa kwemithetho kahulumeni eningiliziwe yobandlululo olusakazekile lwamazwe ukuze bahlangabezane nendinganiso ye-Boerne. Uma umbhalo ocacile kakhulu, kungenzeka kakhulu ukuba iNkantolo isekele ukuhlaziywa.

Izinqubo Zomthetho KaHulumeni Ezingalawuleki

Umbuso ngamunye uvumela uhlobo oluthile lwesu lokuzimela. Izenzo eziphikisanayo, ukugxeka, nezenzo zomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo zokuthatha i-tort zinganikeza ikhambi uma umthetho kahulumeni ungawuvumeli. Ama-Attorney kufanele ahlole ukuthi umbuso wawo uwenqabe yini ukuzivikela ezigabani ezithile zamalungelo abantu. Amanye amazwe, njengeCalifornia ne New York, anemithetho evumela ukulimala okukhulu.

Ukuhlanganiswa Nabalweli Bakahulumeni

Lapho ummangalelwa ekhuluma ngokumelene nombuso kanye nenhlangano kamasipala, elandela ummangalelwa kamasipala ngaphansi kuka 76 1983 angaveza umonakalo ngaphandle kwesithiyo sokuzivikela kombuso. Icala likaMasipala ngaphansi lidinga ubufakazi besimiso noma isiko, kodwa izenzakalo eziphumelelayo zingaholela ezinguqulweni ezingokwezimiso kanye nezinxephezelo zezisulu.

Isiphetho: Ukulinganisela Ububusi Nokulandisa

Ukuzivikela kombuso wobusosha akusona isithiyo esiphelele ekuqinisweni kwamalungelo abantu, kodwa ibeka imingcele ebanzi okumelwe iqondiswe ngokucophelela. Ikhono lokumangalela izikhulu zikahulumeni ngenxa yosizo olungenamthetho linikeza ipesenti elibalulekile ekuziphatheni okungagunyaziwe, kodwa ukuhluleka ukubuyisa umonakalo ngokuqondile kuhulumeni kuseyigebe elikhulu. INkantolo ePhakeme iyaqhubeka icwenga ikhuphula imfundiso, futhi igcina amandla okuzivikela ngaphansi kweSiphetho se-14nethili, okumelwe kubukelwe imibandela engokomthetho. Izimiso zomphakathi ukuze ziqikelelwe ngokugcwele, isimiso somthetho kumelwe sihlasele isilinganiso esithinta izithakazelo ezingokomthetho zezwe ezizingeni eliqinile nezimeleyo kuyilapho iqinisekisa ukuthi izisulu zokucwaswa nokuxhasha nokuphathwa kabi zinesihlukuphelo. Ukuqonda imingcele yokuvikelwa kwesimiso sokuvikelwa kwemithetho kusehlakalo lokuqala kuxhomeke emashumini amashumini eminyaka okuqala.