ISichibiyelo seSembete yoMthetho-sisekelo wase-United States siqinisekisa ilungelo lokuqulwa kwecala enkantolo enkantolo yomphakathi, siqinisa isivikelo esiyisisekelo phakathi kweSikhathi Samalungelo Abantu. Samiswa ngo - 1791, lokhu kulungisa kulondoloza isici esiyinhloko somthetho wesiNgisi futhi kubonakalisa ukuzimisela koMsunguli wokuvikela izakhamuzi ekuphathweni yizo zokwahlulela futhi siqinisekisa ukuthi abantu abavamile banendima eqondile ekuqondiseni ubulungisa. Nakuba ngokuvamile bembozwa isigebengu saso, iSiphendulo Sesithupha, iSiphendulo seSikhathi seSitha sisahluzo silokhu siyimpinda ebalulekile kuhulumeni nasembusweni yezentengisweni yezentengiselwano.

Imvelaphi Engokomlando Nokukhishwa Kwemidanti

Umthetho Ovamile WesiNgisi Nokuhlangenwe Nawo Ebukweni Lamazwe

Ilungelo lokuqulwa kwecala lezakhamuzi eMelika linesisekelo esijulile esingokwesiko esingokomthetho saseNgilandi, esibuyela emuva esivumelwaneni sikaMagna Carta sokwahlulela kontanga. Ngekhulu leshumi nesikhombisa, izinkantolo zaseNgilandi zazivame ukusebenzisa izigijimi eziphikisanayo zomphakathi ezihilela impahla, izivumelwano, nama-torts. Abakholoni baseMelika babelithanda lelilungelo futhi balibheka njengesivikelo sokumelana negunya lombuso lobuKhosi elizimele. Lapho izikhulu zaseBrithani zifaka umthetho ongalungile nezokwahlulela kwamajaji ezinkantolo zamakoloni, intukuthelo yakhula. ISimemezelo seNkangazwe sabhekisela ngokukhethekile ekuncishweni kwecala ngokwezikhalo zenkosi uGeorge III. Lokhu okuhlangenwe nakho okungoko kwenza ukugcinwa kwecala lokuqulwa kwenkantolo engokomthetho okungekhona okungagunyazwayo phakathi negunyazwayo kuhulumeni omusha.

Isivumelwano Somthetho - sisekelo Nezidingo Ezimelene Nempi

UMthetho-sisekelo wokuqala owabuthwa ngo-1787 wawungenaso isivikelo esicacile ekuqulweni kwecala lezakhamuzi. Abaphikisi bokunqanda i-Anti-Federalist .* banquma ukuyeka lokhu, bephikisa ngokuthi ijaji elinamandla likahulumeni lingase lilulamise izinqubo zenkantolo yombuso futhi liqede imvume yabahluleli. Ngokuphendulayo, iSishayamthetho sokuqala sahlongoza uchungechunge lwezinguquko, kuhlanganise nalokho okuzoba yiNkampucuko yeSiphemende. Izimpikiswano zokungathathiwe zangaphansi kwe-Antimedia zagcizelela ukuthi ilungelo lokuqulwa kwecala ezicabeni zomphakathi sesizwe lase limisiwe kakade kakade futhi kufanele liqashelwe ngokwezinga lombuso.

Ukukhishwa Kwemisebe Ngo - 1791

Umhlangano wezentengiselwano waseVirginia wawunethonya ngokukhethekile, ufuna ukuba abahluleli bahlulele. NgoDecember 1791, inani elidingekayo lemibuso laligunyaze iBhili lamaLungelo, futhi isiHlanzi seSembetempic saba yingxenye yoMthetho-sisekelo. Amagama aso abonisa ukuhlehliswa: nakuba ukuhlenga kusebenza ezinkantolo zikahulumeni, kushiya izinqubo eziqondile cishe njengesilinganiso samajaji nokungalingani kwejaji.

Umbhalo Nelungiselelo

“ Ezisusweni zomthetho ovamile, lapho inani eliphikisanayo lizodlula khona amaRandi angamashumi amabili, ilungelo lokuqulwa icala lizolondolozwa, futhi alikho iqiniso eliqulwa ijaji, ngenye indlela liyophinde lihlolwe kunoma yiliphi iGatsha lika-United States, kunokuba kubekwe imithetho yomthetho ovamile.”

“ Umthetho WeCommon” Umehluko

Phakathi kokulungisa kukhona amazwi athi “Izikhangiso emthetho ovamile.” Lokhu kubhekisela ezicabeni ezingokomlando ezazingazwakala ezinkantolo zomthetho zaseNgilandi ``zibeka icala ngokulimaza kwemali','akanye ngokumelene nemali ephuzwisiwe, ezwakala ngabahluleli ngaphandle kwemithetho futhi benikezwa imiyalelo, ukwenza okuthile, noma amanye amakhambi angekho emakhambini avamile. Namuhla, izinkantolo zikahulumeni zihlangene umthetho nezinqubo ezihlukene, kodwa izindaba zisalokhu zikhona. Uma icala lifuna usizo olusemthethweni olusemthethweni (imali echithwe), iSichibiyelo seNguquko esivamile sisebenza. Uma sifuna usizo olufanele (isishayamiso, umthetho), akukho mthetho owekho kuwe. Izinkantolo zivame ukusebenzisa ukuhlola okuningi, ukukala ikhambiso, ukulinganisela ikhambiso lendaba.

UMncintiswano Wama - dollar Angu - 20 Nesilinganiso Sawo Sokungalawuleki

Ukulungisa kumisa isilinganiso esincane sempikiswano engu-R2,000 qhaqha, kodwa esinenani elikhulu ngo-1791 kodwa asizange sinciphe namuhla. ISishaya-mthetho asikaze silishintshe leli nani, kodwa iziqondiso zikahulumeni manje zibeka isilinganiso esiphezulu kakhulu sokulawula (umz., iR1,505 000 ekulawuleni izinhlobonhlobo). Njengendaba esebenzayo, ama-R220 awavamile ukubekwa; izinkantolo zikahulumeni ziwachaza ukuze nje afune impikiswano yangempela phezu kwenani elingalinganiyo. Noma kunjalo, leli qoqo lihlala liyimpikiswano engokomlando edinga ulwazi ngezikhathi ezithile ngokuphathelene negunya lomthetho wokulungisa umnyango.

Ukulondolozwa, Hhayi Indalo

Ulimi lwe-amendiment `luzolondolozwa''.] kusobala ukuthi ilungelo alisungulwanga kabusha. Kunalokho, uMthetho-sisekelo uvikela ukuqulwa kwecala njengoba kwakukhona ngo-1791. Lokhu kufunda kwakuqala kusho ukuthi izinkantolo zikahulumeni kumelwe zibheke ekusebenziseni okungokomlando amaNgisi lapho zinquma ukuthi uhlobo oluthile lwecala alunga-olungagcinwa. Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, iNkantolo Ephakeme iqaphele ukuthi ukuqedwa kwecala kulinganisela futhi amandla amajaji okulawula ukutholwa kwejaji leqiniso; ngakho, umahluleli kahulumeni akanakunikeza ukuqulwa okusha ngaphandle kwezindinganiso zomthetho ovamile.

Izinga LeSichibiyelo Sesikhombisa

Amacala Afanelekela Ukuqulwa Kwamacala KaJury

ISichibiyelo Sesikhombisa sisebenza enkantolo kahulumeni ehlanganisa nalena:

  • [ Impikiswano [ - iziphakamiso zesephulo sesivumelwano esifuna umonakalo wemali.
  • [ Izenzo zokwethula [ - - ukulimala komuntu siqu, ukuhlambalaza, ukunganaki, nemikhiqizo.
  • [ izimpikiswano ezingokwesisho[ – ukuphamba, ukuguqula, nezenzo zesiqu ezithulile (lapho kufunwa ukukhululeka okungokomthetho).
  • umfundisi wezokufundisa [ - Izimiso eziningi zikahulumeni, njengemithetho elwa nokungavumelani nomthetho wesimo, inikeza ilungelo lokuvumelana nesinqumo sokwahlulela esibiza futhi isiMithende seSichibiyelo seSembeli.

Nokho, ukulungisa akuqinisekisi ukuba abahluleli emacaleni angenamibandela ehlukene ngokuphelele, njengesahlukaniso, ilungelo lokuwinwa kwabantwana, noma ukwenza isivumelwano esithile. Futhi, amasutu amelene nohulumeni kahulumeni ngaphansi kwe-Federal Tort Ponties Act aqulwa kumajaji, hhayi ijaji, ngoba lawomacala awawona “awamukeleki emthethweni ofanayo” njengoba kuqondwa ngokomlando.

Icala Elingahlukani

Ukunquma ukuthi iphuzu elithile lingokomthetho noma liyavumelana kungaba nzima. Izinkantolo zisebenzisa “ukuhlolwa okungokomlando” ngokubuza ukuthi inkantolo yomthetho yayiyoziletha yini noma yayingeke yabekwa ngo-1791. iMarkman v. Westview Institutions, Inc. [1996], iNkantolo Ephakeme yasebenzisa lokhu kuhlola ekugunyazeni amacala futhi yathi ukwakhiwa kuyindaba yomthetho wamajaji. Okunye ukungemthetho kwanamuhla kuhlanganisa:

  • Imicimbi ye-Banruptic – izigigaba eziyinhloko azizona ezezezenkohliso.
  • I-audication - Icala lezinhlangano eziningi alinikezi izigijimi zokwahlulela, futhi iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yakusekela lokhu uma nje icala lihilela “ilungelo lomphakathi.”
  • izinkantolo ezithi ziQedela amaFayile [ - – izifundazwe zingakha izigaba ezincane ngaphandle kokwahlulela.

Lokhu kulinganiselwa ngokuvamile kuvezwa ngoba izimpi ezifuna ukugwema ijaji zingase zizame ukuvumelana nalokho ezikushoyo njengamalungelo omphakathi noma alinganayo.

Izinkantolo Ezibhekene Nezici Ezizimele

Ngokugxeka, iSichibiyelo seSembethi asizange “sifakwe” ngokumelene nezifundazwe ngeSichibiyelo seshumi nane. Lokhu kusho ukuthi izinkantolo zikahulumeni azidingeki ngomthetho-mthetho ukuba zinikeze isigwebo somthetho-mthetho ngaphansi kwezindinganiso ezifanayo. Umthetho-sisekelo noma imithetho kahulumeni ngamunye unquma ilungelo enkantolo. Ezinye izigodlo ziqinisekisa ukuqulwa kwamacala abahluleli ngisho nasemacala amancane, kuyilapho amanye evimbela ukuqulwa kwemikhankatho ethile. Inkantolo Ephakeme iye yanqaba njalo ukuhlanganisa iSichibiyelo seNkathi seNkathi, icabanga ukuthi ilungelo alibalulekile eMthethweni waseMelika wenkululeko emisiwe. Njengomphumela, inkantolo engokomthetho ingase ingabi namalungelo enkantolo ngisho noma icala eliyilo linjalo enkantolo ifuna ukuba kube khona umuntu oyedwa.

Inqubo Yokuqulwa Kwecala KwamaJury

Ukukhetha I - Jury (I - voir Dire)

Inqubo yokukhetha ikomiti yabahluleli yangaphakathi engakhethi, eyaziwa ngokuthi ivoir jamp, ivumela amajaji nabameli ukuba babuze abangase babe abahluleli ngezizathu zobandlululo, ulwazi ngecala, nekhono lokusebenza. Umgomo ukuhlanganisa iqembu elinganquma amaqiniso ngokungakhethi. Uhlangothi ngalunye lungasebenzisa izinselele (izigebengu ezizinhloba ngaphandle kwesizathu) ezilinganiselwe, kanye nezinselele zembangela (ezingabekwangalingani, kodwa okumelwe zivunyelwe). Izinkantolo kumelwe ziqinisekise ukuthi iquba labahluleli limelela ingxenye ephambanweni yomphakathi, nakuba iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yakholelwa ukuthi imfuneko yeSiphakamiso sesithupha elungile esemthethweni esemthethweni esemthethweni kuphela; izinhlu zomphakathi zingabekwa imibandela engcono kakhulu ekwakheni.

Indima KaJury: Ukuthola Iqiniso Nomonakalo

Ecaleni lejaji lomphakathi, abahluleli banquma imibuzo yeqiniso futhi bahlole umonakalo. Umahluleli uyayala abahluleli ngomthetho ohambelanayo futhi aqondise ama-gamente. Okutholwa yijaji okuyiqiniso kunelungelo lokuthatha indiva kakhulu; umahluleli angasigumbuqela isinqumo samajaji uma singasekelwe ngokucacile ebufakazini noma uma intethelelo ingaphezu kwamandla noma inganele kangangokuba ishaqise unembeza. ISiphendulo seGabethi sivimbela izinkantolo zikahulumeni ekulahleni amaqiniso aqulwa “ngokunye okuphambene nemithetho yomthetho ovamile”""" [1] Ijaji alikwazi ukumane nje ukuthatha indawo yemibono yakhe noma eyeyalo.

Ubumsulwa Nobukhulu Obuyingqopha - mlando

ISichibiyelo seSeventh asidingi isahlulelo esihlanganyelwe noma ubukhulu obubodwa. Ngokomlando, izigebengu zomthetho womphakathi ngokuvamile zazinamalungu ayishumi nambili futhi zifuna ukungalingani. Nokho, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yasekela imithetho kahulumeni evumela izinqumo zomphakathi ezingavumelaniyo (umz., ] Apodaca v. Oregon[FLD]] [[FLT]]] [icala] [i] liyicala lobugebengu; emongweni womphakathi, iNkantolo ayizange isebenzise imfuneko yokungalingani). Inkantolo yesizwe ngokuvamile inezigaba eziyisithupha eziyishumi nambili ngaphandle kokuba ivume ukuthi ihlelwe ngokwendlela ethile. Umthetho 48 we-Federal Procreactive Procureaul Regation udinga ukuba ihlulelwe amalungu ahlukene amalungu ayisithupha ngaphandle kokuba amalungu avumelane.

Ithonya Emithethweni YaseMelika

Ukuqulwa Kwamacala Kahulumeni Nokulandisa

Izikhulu zomthetho zisebenza umsebenzi obucayi, ikakhulukazi emacaleni esivumelwano ezinkampanini nasemabuthweni kahulumeni. Ngokunika izakhamuzi ezivamile amandla okunquma icala nokuhlela umonakalo, amajaji afaka izibalo zomphakathi esimisweni somthetho. Ukuhlola kuye kwabonisa ukuthi amajaji avame ukuveza imiphumela ekwaziwa kakhulu futhi engaguquguquki kunemivimbo yamabhentshi ezindaweni ezithile, futhi angasebenza njengenhlolo ekucupheni kobandlululo noma ukonakala. Ilungelo lokuqulwa kwecala futhi amabutho afaka ubufakazi emphakathini, obusobala ngenxa ye-meya ye-democratic democratic decity.

Ubufakazi Obuphathelene Nenqubo Kajury

Ukucwaninga ngemithetho yezenkantolo yangaphakathi kusikisela ukuthi ngokuvamile balandela umthetho futhi bahlole ngokucophelela ubufakazi, naphezu kokubheka izimo eziguquguqukayo mayelana nezinqumo ezingokomzwelo noma ezingenangqondo. Ukuhlola kwango 2006 okwakhishwa kuyi- Dipaul Law Review[ kwathola ukuthi abahluleli bavumelana nezinqumo zejaji ezinqunywe izibalo eziningi. Nokho, ukukhathazeka ngezenzo zokujezisa abaqeshiwe kanye nesijeziso esikhudlwana kuye kwaholela ezinguqulweni zemithetho, njengezikhonkwane zezo ezikhubazekayo ezikhutshwe imingcele nezindinganiso ezikhuliswe kakhulu zokubukeza. Isinqumo seNkanto e BM yoM yaseNyakatho neMelika. [[FLT] [FLT] [FLT]] 96] [196]) sasungula inqubo efanelekile ekukhiqinini, kodwa isivikelo sezehlulelu lokuvuna.

Ukugxekwa Nokunxusa Inguquko

Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi izigebengu zezemali zangaphakathi zingabiza, zithathe isikhathi esiningi, futhi zingabikezeleki. Ezinye izigebengu zezentengiselwano ziyinkimbinkimbi kangangokuba abasizi bejaji bazama ukuqonda ubufakazi obungokobuchwepheshe. Abanye baphawula ukuthi ilungelo lokuqulwa kwejaji liyancipha kakhulu ngokukhishwa ngezimemezelo zangaphambi kwe-diptation ekuthengeni nasekusebenzeni. Le nkinga ihlanganisa iziphakamiso ezikhethekile ze-jaji (isibonelo, "i-"FLT:0] AT&T Molibration v. [20][20]][11]) iqala impikiswano yokuthi iSiphendulo seRefecence siyaphela yini ekusebenzeni. Iziphakamiso zenguquko zihlanganisa izigqi ezikhethekile zejaji (um., “ultlvlot") noma ukuhlola ibhulogoza, kodwa noma ukuzama ukuhlulwa kwe-jajiki ye-jaji.

Ukunconywa Nezinselele Zanamuhla

Ukuphakama Kwezenzo Zokuhlalisana Neqembu

Emashumini eminyaka amuva nje, izinkampani ziye zafaka izimemezelo zokuhlanganisa izimemezelo ezivamile ezihlanganisa yonke into kusukela kumakhadi okuthenga ngesikweleti kuya ezivumelwaneni zemisebenzi. Lezi zigaba zivame ukunqanda izenzo zesigaba futhi zidinga izimpikiswano ukuba zixazululwe ummeli oyedwa, ziqede ngokuphumelelayo ilungelo lokuqulwa kwejaji. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yasekela izimemezelo ezinjalo ngaphansi kwe-Federal Arbitration Act, icabanga ukuthi ukunqandwa kuyindaba yesivumelwano futhi ayinciphi mthetho. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi ukunqandwa kwemithetho kuyashesha futhi kuyanciphisa; abagxeki baphikisa ukuthi iSiphendumiso seSend seSigqi futhi bayaphika ukufinyelela izimemezelo ezibumbeni. Inkulumo - mpikiswano iyaqhubeka eSiviyo nasenhlolweni, kanye nezikwenzinyana eziningana ukuvalwa kwesivumelwano semisebenzi eqeshisiwe.

Ukunqatshelwa Kwesimiso Sokuphatha

Imithetho eminingi kahulumeni yenza izinhlangano zokulwa ezimelene ngaphandle kwemikhakha yamajaji. Ngokwesibonelo, i-Social Security Administration izwa ukunxenxelwa, i-Nzalo Yokuvikela Izokugcinwa kwemithetho, nemithetho yezemisebenzi kahulumeni iphoqelelwa ngabahluleli bomthetho abalawulayo. INkantolo Ephakeme iphethe ukuthi iSichibiyelo seSember asisebenzi lapho uhulumeni esebenza ngegunya lakhe lokuphoqelela “amalungelo omphakathi”. [[FLT:] amajaji akhiwe ngesimiso somthetho esihlangene. Kodwa uma inkampani ifuna izindleko zemali ezingokwesiko ezizomthetho, ilungelo lokulawula ingavelelwa kwecala lingase lisebenza. Lendawo yomthetho ihlala ingaphoxekelwe, ikakhulukazi ngemva [FLD] V [FF1:] [23], lapho i-Genethi ye-Genecreant ifuna ukuquagissstion yezehlulelo ngokomthetho wesifunda sesifunda sesifunda sezezwe. Ngokuqhubekayo i-Genequagest. cishe i-Genetivent.

Ubuchwepheshe Nezikole Ezingokoqobo

Isifo se-COVOVAD-19 esiye sagqugquzelwa ukuzama ukuqulwa kwecala le-operal amacala esizwe, eqhutshwa nge-comphysectone conective. Imiphumela yakuqala isikisela ukuthi ukuqulwa kwecala kungaqhutshwa kahle, nakuba kusakhathazekile ngejaji, ikhono lokuhlola ukuthembeka, kanye nezomthetho ezinamandla. Ezinye izinkantolo ziye zamukela izithombe ezixubile. Njengoba imfuneko yeSigqi seSigqi sokuHlamisa i-Commercip (Izimende ye-Commerment) iqhubeka, idinga ukuvumelana. Impindayo ayipheli lutho ngecala lokuqunga, ngakho izinkantolo ziyokunquma ukuthi isiqinisekiso somthetho womthetho.

Isiphetho

ISichibiyelo seSeventh sihlala siyisivikelo esibalulekile ezakhamuzini ezifuna ubulungisa ezinkantolo zikahulumeni. Izimpande zaso ezingokomlando ezisemthetho wesiNgisi kanye nokulwa kwegunya elizimele nokulwa kwemibuso ewuhulumeni kugcizelela ukubaluleka kwaso njengokuhlola amandla okwahlulela nohulumeni. Nakuba ukulungisa kungaqinisekisi ukuqulwa kwejaji ezinkantolo zikahulumeni, ithonya laso ligcwele impucuko yaseMelika engokomthetho futhi liye laguqula ukuthuthuka kwesinqumo sempikiswano. Inkathi yokukhuphulwa kwemithetho eyinkimbinkimbi, ukuhlelwa kwemithetho eyinkimbinkimbi, nokushintshwa kwezobuchwepheshe, ukulondolozwa kwezehlulelo lwezehlulelo lwesizwe kubaluleke kakhulu kunanini ngaphambili. Ukuqonda izinganiso zayo, imingcele, izinselele zanamuhla zibalulekile kunoma ubani obheka icala lakhe njengesinqumo isomthetho wontanga yabo. Ngoba, qhubeka ufunda [FF: 0] nohlelo lwezenyulu lwezentengo yomthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho.[Fot] [Fotest] [Fodvos] [F], izinqulution:[4]