Izisebenzi zomphakathi ezincika kumalungiselelo empesheni achazwayo empesheni enzima kakhulu engxabanweni yempesheni yomphakathi nezinzuzo zomhlalaphansi. Zisekelwe eSichibiyelweni seshumi nanye, lemfundiso ivikela ekumangalelweni enkantolo kahulumeni ngaphandle kwemvume yazo. Njengoba izigidi zezisebenzi zomphakathi ezithembele ezimisweni zempesheni ezicacisiweyo zempesheni, ikhono lokuphoqelela amalungelo omthetho wokuzivumelanisa noma omthetho womthetho womthetho ungawaphula lowo mngcele noma umthetho kahulumeni uye wawuvala ngokusemthethweni. Njengoba izikhala zemali zemali ziyanda futhi zizuzisa, ukuqonda imingcele yemali elawulayo yemali engokomthetho kuba yisidingo sabameli, abakhi bemithetho, abakhi bemithetho, nabaholi-mpatho.

Umsuka Wobunye Bombuso OnguMbusi

Isinqumo sokuvikela uhulumeni asibhalwanga ngokuqondile eMthethweni. Kunalokho, sisuka eSichibiyelweni seshumi nanye seSichibiyelo, esagunyazwa ngo-1795 ukugumbuqela iNkantolo Ephakeme ’ isinqumo ku Charolm v. IGeorgia[[. Icala livumele izakhamuzi ezizimele ukuba zingene enkantolo yezwe, zibhebhebhebhethekise umsindo phakathi kwezifundazwe ezihilelekile eziphethe i-stical. Umbhalo weNguqulo yeshumi nanye incane: ivimbela izakhamuzi zesinye isifundazwe noma izizwe zangaphandle. Nokho, iNkanto ephakeme iye yayichaza kabanzi, iphethe [FLDYUM] v.[FLT][18] [FF]

Ngaphansi kwemfundiso yanamuhla, izigodlo zijabulela ukugonyelwa emacaleni ayimfihlo enkantolo kahulumeni, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi i-paltiff ’ isifunda sokuhlala. Lokhu kugonyelwa kudlulela ezinhlanganweni zikahulumeni nasezinhlanganweni, kuhlanganise nezimali zomphakathi ezibhekwa njengezikhali zempesheni zikahulumeni. INkantolo iye yanquma futhi ukuthi ukugonyelwa kuyilungelo lomthetho-sisekelo elithi lingase lithathe isigwebo kodwa ukuthi iSishaya - Congress ingagqamisa kuphela uma i-seqendement 5 yeSigaxa 5 seSiphendulo se-14 ukuze isebenzise amalungelo ayisisekelo.

Ukuze ubheke ngokujule kakhulu iSichibiyelo seshumi nanye & #8217; umbhalo nomlando, i-Cornell Information Institute inikeza ukufingqa okuqinile.

Ukuhlangana KoMbusi Emkhathini Wecala Lomphakathi

Izimali zempesheni yomphakathi zisetshenziswa kakhulu ngamabhodi noma izinhlangano zikahulumeni, njenge California Public Groucesees ’ Isimiso Somhlalaphansi (CalPers) noma uthisha ’ Isimiso sokuthatha umhlalaphansi saseTexas. Lezi zikhungo ngokuvamile zibhekwa njengezingamandla kahulumeni futhi ngenxa yalokho zinelungelo lokumelana nesimiso sokuzimela. Uma umhlalaphansi noma umnikazi ehodela imali yempesheni yokuncishwa izinzuzo, ukuphulwa kwesivumelwano, noma ukuphatha kabi, umbuso ungaqinisa ukuvinjelwa kwemali enkantolo yombuso.

Izigxobo ziphakeme. Ngokwe- Pherew Charitables, izimali zempesheni zikahulumeni zanciphisa ingqikithi yezimali zemali zemali ezingaphezu kwezigidi zezigidi ezingu - R222. Izimo eziningi ziye zanciphisa izinzuzo, iminikelo yezisebenzi ekhushuliwe, noma ishintshwa izindleko zezinga lokuphila, okuholela ekuthatheni ikhefu ngokuthatha umhlalaphansi abaphikisa ukuthi lezinguquko ziveza ukulinganiselwa kwesivumelwano. Umbuso uvale iziphakamiso ezikhokhwana ezingokomthetho, iphoqelele ukuba abaholi benzele ezinkantolo zikahulumeni lapho imithetho yokuhlala phansi noma yokungantenga kungahluka.

Kubalulekile ukuthi umehluko phakathi kwezindaba zikahulumeni nezinhlangano zendawo. Isikhwama sempesheni esilawulwa isifundazwe noma idolobha singase singatholi ukuvikeleka okufanayo nokulawulwa umuntu uhulumeni ngokwawo. INkantolo ePhakeme yase-U.S. yacaciswa eNyakatho ye-Munishuwalense Co. v. Chatham County (2006] ukuthi ukuvikela kohulumeni bendawo kuxhomeke ezingeni lokulawula kwezwe nokuthi isahlulelo siyokhokhwazwa yini engcebweni yemali kahulumeni. Izimali eziningi zomphakathi zisemgangathweni kahulumeni, ngakho zithola isivikelo esiphelele.

Ukungenela Komthetho Kahulumeni NoMbuso

Ungqimba olunzima lwemifantu luphakama lapho izingxabano zempesheni zihilela umthetho kahulumeni. ISishaya-mthetho sinamandla ombuso owenziwe ngokungemthetho ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo seshumi nane, kodwa iNkantolo Ephakeme iwasikelele kakhulu lawo mandla. Ngokwesibonelo, Kimel v. Florida Board of Regents [2000], iNkantolo yasekela ukuthi iNkathi Yenkathi eMsebenzi (ADEA) ayinakho ukukwazi ukuvikela izikhali eziqinile ngenxa yokuthi yayingeyo ukuthatha indivani encikelweni yokungamela ubuzwe. Nokho, iNkantolo isekela ukucwa kwemithetho enjengemithetho yomkhaya ne-Slectivessss (ngeyokuhlela izivumelwano zokuzivikela) kanye ne-Active Retials Retials Regation (IS).

UMSEBENZIRA ubaluleke kakhulu ezimpikiswaneni zempesheni yomphakathi ngoba kudinga ukuba kunikezwe izibolengo zokubuyisela omakad’emuva esikhathini esichithwa emsebenzini. Torres v. Umnyango weTexas we-Precuty [2022]), iNkantolo ePhakamileyo yasekela ukuthi ivume ngokusikisela ukuthi i-suth ngaphansi koMNISTRA uma imukela izimali zikahulumeni, iphawula ukwanda okunokwenzeka kwemibono ye-oral capiner. Noma kunjalo, i-USAUSSRA iyi-od ngokomthetho omncane; izilinganiso eziningi zemali zisekelwe evumelwaneni yomthetho kahulumeni noma emalungiselelweni kahulumeni, lapho ukukhokhwazwa kwe-mthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho, lapho ukukhomba uhulumeni kungasebenzi.

Isihluthulelo Esiya Embusweni Wobukhosi

Naphezu kobuningi bokuzivikela komzimba, izindlela eziningana zivumela abathatha umhlalaphansi nabanye abathi bangabaluthaphi usizo ezimalini zempesheni zikahulumeni:

Udonga Oluyisivikelo Oluvela Embusweni

Izigodlo eziningi zinezithiyo ezinqanda ukugonywa kwezindlela ezithile zokuzisholo, ikakhulukazi ukwephulwa kwesivumelwano. Izwe lingase livume ukufanelana nezinkantolo zalo ngokwalo ngomthetho noma nge-tort lithi lithatha isinyathelo[ noma iziphakamiso zesenzo sokuthatha isinyathelo [[. Ngokwesibonelo, iNkantolo Ephakeme, iNew York R]Clege; iNkantolo Yezithi Zomthetho Izenqanda izivumelwano zesivumelwano ezifuna ukulwa nombuso, kuhlanganise nezivumelwano zemali ezihlobeneyo. Nokho, izintengo ezinjalo ngokuvamile zilinganiselwe enkantolo; i-athorive yezomthetho yenkantolo yokuzivikela yenkantolo kumelwe ibe yize. INkakhulu ye-New York &FLClegesatects.[FoctiveFod Frome][9]

Ukukhukhulwa Inhlangano Ngaphansi Kwengxenye 5 YeSichibiyelo Seshumi Nane

Njengoba kuphawuliwe, iSivumelwano singawehlula uhulumeni ukuzivikela lapho uqinisa amalungelo omthetho-sisekelo anjengesivikelo esifanayo noma inqubo efanele. Inkinga iwukuthi izimpikiswano eziningi zempesheni azihileli amalungelo omthetho-mthetho kodwa amalungelo ombuso asungulwe yisivumelwano. INkantolo ePhakamileyo yase-U. ingunyaka ka-1998 ibambelele ekutheni iContract Claus (iSiqendu I, iSiqendu 10) isebenza kuphela ezindaweni ezithile, kodwa iziphakamiso azinikezi iziphazamiso ezizimele ilungelo lokukhokha enkantolo yombuso ngendlela efanayo neSigabeni sonyakazelo ka-19984. INkanto iye yanqaba ukuvumela icandelo lokuthathela izivumelwano ezingokomthetho zokulwa kwamazwe, ibhekisela ku kodwa isikonti yeSikole seSikole seSibhedlela. [Fodkthev:][F1] [F.1][1][1]

Imfundiso Yokugcina Ewumntwana

Lemfundiso inikeza inqubo enzima: isikhulu sikahulumeni singamangalela isikhulu sikahulumeni esisenkantolo kahulumeni ukuze silindele ukukhululeka ekunqandeni ukwaphulwa okuqhubekayo komthetho kahulumeni. Isikhulu sibhekwa njengomuntu ofanelwe ukuhambisana neNguquko yeshumi nanye. Ngokwesibonelo, uma ibhodi lempesheni kahulumeni yempesheni iphula i-MSERRA noma umthetho-mthethweni wezomthetho wezomthetho, umhlala phansi angafaka amalungu ebhodini ezindaweni zawo ezingokomthetho ezigunyaziswe ukuyala ukuba aphinde abale izinzuzo.

Imfundiso ye-Ex Parte Young ayivumeli ukusholo kwemali ngokulimazayo. Uma umhlalaphansi efuna izinzuzo ezibuya emuva noma ukuhlenga, ukuvikela uhulumeni ekuzivikeleni kusevimbela ukuvuma uma uhulumeni engakulahlanga. Ezinye izifunda ziye zavumela umonakalo ngaphansi kwezimiso ezithile zikahulumeni, kodwa umugqa unzima.

Ukuqhubeka Kwemali

I-Expand Virginia Community College v. Katz (2006]. Uma izimali zemali yemali kahulumeni ngenxa yokuwinwa kwamalungelo emali enkantolo ngaphansi kweSigaba 106 se-Bankruptic Code. Lokhu kwaqinisekiswa iNkantolo Ephakeme [ku-] i-Central Virginia Community College v. . Uma amafa emali yemali yemali yemali kahulumeni ebhangelwa ngokwezimali (ivela kakhulu kuhulumeni, nakuba kungenzeka ngemali yedengemuva yemali yendawo), noma uma umhlala phansi ngokwakhe ephucwe ekulahlekelweni imali ekweletwa yimali kahulumeni, noma indawo efuna ukukhokhwazwa yindawo engekho lutho ekhona ephethe umqashiswayo (indlela) ehlala idolobha.

Izinselele Ezingokomthetho Kwasebethathe Umhlalaphansi

Abathatha umhlalaphansi babhekene nobunzima bokwakha lapho ukuzivikela komzimba kukhushuliwe. Ngisho nalapho benesivumelwano esinamandla ngaphansi komthetho kahulumeni, kumelwe basebenzise i-octal evikelayo. Okulandelayo kuyimibono evamile engokomthetho nezithiyo zabo:

Ukuhlasela Kwenhlangano

Inzuzo yomphakathi eziningi zempesheni zibhekwa njengezingagunyazwanga ukuba kwenziwe isivumelwano. Emithendelekweni evimbela ukuncishiswa kwesivumelwano, abathatha umhlalaphansi bangamangalela enkantolo kahulumeni. Kodwa enkantolo kahulumeni, iContracct Claus ayiwona umthombo welungelo lokuthatha isinyathelo ngasese. Iziphendu ngokuvamile zincika ku-42 U.S.C. . .64 1983, zigunyaza ukuthi umthetho kahulumeni ukhubaze isivumelwano sabo. Kodwa iNkanto ephakeme i-Contract Clause. Kodwa iNkantolo yenkantolo ebekwe [[FLD:0]] Carter v. [FLT:] [18]] [85] futhi kamuva icala laleyo ndawo ayifaki izivumelwano zika-Clauslauss. Umphumela walokho okuthiwayo: izinkantolo ze-oshantine ayizi ukuthi: izikhotho neze zilalele izivumelwano zemali ezingaphansi kwesigaba sonyaka ka-199843, futhi i-19.[3]

Ukunqanyulwa Kwezinhlelo Okulindelekile

Umzila kahulumeni othembisa kakhulu yinqubo efanelekile yokulungisa. Uma uhulumeni uguqula indlela yempesheni ngaphandle kwesaziso noma ithuba lokuzwa, abathatha umhlalaphansi bangaletha i-Candelo 1983 ukusho kokwephulwa kweSichibiyelo se-14. Imfundiso ye-Ex Parte Young ingavumela ukukhululeka kokubuyisela izinqubo zangaphambili. Nokho, iNkantolo Ephakeme inenqubo elinganiselwe efanelekile yezimiso zezomnotho, ngakho ukuncishiswa kwenzuzo ephelele akuyona inqubo efanele ngaphandle kokuba ishaye unembeza.

Imisebenzi Yokuziphilisa Neyokwethembana Kusho Ukuthi

Ezinye ziveza ukuthi imali yempesheni iwukwethenjwa, i-odoli iphethe kabi izimali. Uma uhulumeni ungayikhokhisi imali, abazuzayo bangagwetshwa ngenxa yokuphulwa komsebenzi wokuzimela. Umthetho wombuso ungavala ukumangalela okunjalo enkantolo kahulumeni, kodwa ezinye izinkantolo zikahulumeni ziye zathi ubuhlobo bokukhokha busho ukulahlekelwa imali. Ngokwesibonelo, i-Illinois Supreme Court in [FL:0] Mclove v. State of Illinois (2017) ivumele isumo yokwephula umthetho we-mali yemali enkantolo, kodwa ezinye izinkantolo zibophelele ekuphatheni izimali zemali yemali kahulumeni, ukuveza ukuthi i-Illinome i-'e projectives transywor (i-s) i-se-'intellinomes proces) ifinyelele iziphethi ezihlukene.

Intuthuko Yamuva Nokuhlolwa Kwezigwebo

Izenzakalo ezimbalwa eziphawulekayo zamuva nje zibonisa ukungezwani phakathi kwamalungelo okuzimela azimele nawokuvikela imishado yempesheni:

Scott v. Pennsylvania Board of Probation and Parole

Ngo-2021, iNkantolo ePhakeme yasePennsylvania yakhuluma ngokuthi izisebenzi zomphakathi zingalidlulisela yini icala lokuphoqelela umthetho kahulumeni ofuna ukuba unikele emalini yempesheni. Inkantolo yathi izwe linesimiso sokuvikela uhulumeni ngokukhipha umnyango nge-Plansylvania Public Mudrecee Spective Ement, ivumela ukuthatha umhlalaphansi, kodwa inkantolo yalinganisela ikhambi ekukhipheni ikhambi, hhayi izindleko zemali. Lendaba iqokomisa ukuthi umthetho wenkampane yenkani unganikeza indlela, kodwa ukukhululeka ngokuvamile kuncane.

Kuyisimiso Somhlalaphansi Esiphinde Sasetshenziswa Omphakathi (New Mexico)

Abaholi bempesheni eNew Mexico bamangalela ibhodi lempesheni yezwe ngenxa yokwehla kwezindleko zokulungisa ukuphila (COLAS), bephikisa ngezinguquko ezazephule amalungelo abo agunyaziwe. INkantolo yaseNew Mexico yophenyo ngo-2019 yathola ukuthi ukuvikela kombuso akuzange kuvimbele ukumangalelwa ngenxa yokuthi ibhodi yayinomsebenzi ongokomthetho wokunikeza isimiso sokwethenjwa. Inkantolo yathembela ewumthetho kahulumeni owawuvumela ngokuqondile ukuba ibhodi livunyelwe. Icala lazinziwa phambi kwenkantolo ephakeme yamazweni lalingalawula ukuvikelwa.

Imizamo Kahulumeni Yokulungisa

Ngo-2022, iqembu le-bipartisan eKhondleli lenza i-Public Grouceion Pension Transparency Act, ehlanganisa ilungiselelo elivumela abathatha umhlalaphansi ukuba bafake izimali zempesheni yemali enkantolo kahulumeni ngenxa yokuphulwa kwezindinganiso zikahulumeni. Imali ayikadluli, kodwa ibonisa ukukhungatheka okukhulayo ngovimbeleko lokuvikela. Okwamanje, ezinye izazi ezingokomthetho ziphikisa ngokuthi ukuvimbela ukuvinjelwa kwentela ngokwamukela izinzuzo zentela kahulumeni zemali yempesheni ngaphansi kwe-Internvenue Code Depart 401 program 401. Akukho nkantolo esamukela leyo nkolelo.

Izicelo Zabenzi Bezimiso Nezazi

Isimiso sokuzivikela sombuso ezimpini zempesheni sidala imiphumela ehlukene. Abaholi bemihlala-phantsi ezifundazweni nabaphangi bayakwazi ukumelana nobulungisa kunalabo abakhona abasekela ukugoma kokuzivikela. Abenzi bemithetho kufanele bacabangele okulandelayo:

Umthetho Oyikhonkolo

Izwe elifuna ukwakha ukwethembana nezisebenzi zomphakathi lingamisa imithetho evimbela ukuvinjelwa kwesimiso sokuzimela ngemali yempesheni, okungenani ezinkantolo zikahulumeni. Izifundazwe eziningi kakade zinawo amalungiselelo anjalo, kodwa ngokuvamile zilinganiselwe ekufakeni izivumelwano futhi zingafaki izintela zokukhokha noma zokukhokha. Ukungakhokhi okuningi kunganciphisa izindleko zemali futhi kuthuthukise ukuziphatha.

Isivikelo Semali Yokwethembana

Eminye imibuso iye yamukela izinguquko zomthetho-sisekelo ukuze ivikele izinzuzo zempesheni. Ngokwesibonelo, uMthetho-sisekelo wase-Illinois unikeza ukuthi izinzuzo zempesheni akumelwe zinciphe noma ziphazamiseke. Nakuba kungesona isiphazamiso sokuzivikela komzimba, amalungiselelo anjalo akha ilungelo elicacile eliqashelwe izinkantolo ukuba liqikelelwe uma ukugonyelwa kwezifo kunqandwa.

Enye Impi Engaxazululwa

Eminye imibuso idinga izimpikiswano zempesheni ukuze ithathe izikhawu zokulawula noma ukukhipha imvume ngaphambi kokubekwa kwecala. Lo msakazo ungagwema imibandela evikelayo ngoba izinhlelo zokulawula azikho ngaphansi kwemingcele yeSichibiyelo seshumi nanye. Nokho, uma indikimba ephethe inquma ngokumelene nomhlala-mukile, ukubukezwa kokwahlulela okulandelayo kungase kuvinjelwe yisimiso sokuzivikela.

Isiphetho

Ukuzivikela kombuso kulokhu kuyisithiyo esikhulu kubantu abathatha umhlalaphansi nabakweletwayo abafuna ukuphoqelelwa amalungelo athile ngokumelene nemali yempesheni yomphakathi. Lemfundiso, esekelwe eSichibiyelweni seshumi nanye futhi yanwetshwa amakhulu eminyaka adlule, ivimbela ukumangalelwa kwecala nokweqiwa kwemithetho kahulumeni ngisho nasenkantolo yesifundazwe. Nokho, ngaphandle kwesehlulelo, imfundiso ye-Ex Parte Young, kanye nokuncishiswa kwemithetho ethile yemithetho ethile enikeza amathuba alinganiselwe kodwa abalulekile. Njengoba ukucindezela kwemali yemali yemali yemali edendebhucule ukunyuka nokuncitshiswa kwamakhulu eminyaka, imidlalo ephakathi kwesimiso sombuso nelungelo lempesheni iyaqhubeka ikhona. I-Attoney shorty i-state commentation ne-sensigate yomthetho wombuso ngamunye, kanti abenzi bemithetho ethile yemithetho ethile kufanele balinganise ukulinganisela ukugcinwa phakathi kwezindawo zombuso ezivikela nokuzibo eziseqenjini ezithembekile ezithembekileni zabo.