Isisekelo Senqubo Efanele Nesivikelo Esilinganayo

I-The Baw Procession Claus ne-Actal Protection Clause zimi njengezinsika ezimbili zomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo waseMelika, zombili zisekelwe eSichibiyelweni seshumi nane. Zaqiniswa ngo-1868 ngemva kweMpi Yombango, lezi zigaba zaklanyelwa ukuvikela amalungelo abantu abasanda kukhululwa ebugqilini futhi zimise indinganiso yesizwe yenkululeko nokulingana. Zizonke, zikha umnyombo wamalungelo amaningi omphakathi achazwa ngomthetho-sisekelo. Lokhu kuhlola okukhudlwana okuhlola umsuka emlandweni, izincazelo zezehlulelo zezehlulelo, kanye nokuhlanganisa imingcele yalezizimiso ezimbili, nokunaka ngokukhethekile ukuthi zisebenza kanjani kokubili ngaphandle kwenkululeko nokulingana. Zisebenza ngokuvikela amalungelo ohulumeni ngabanye ngokucushelwa komthetho.

Nakuba izigaba ezimbili zifeza izinjongo ezihlukene", ukusukela phambili kubhekiselwa ekulinganiseni kwezinqubo nasekuvikelweni kwenkululeko eyisisekelo, kanye nesivikelo esifanayo esifuna ukuba abantu abahlala khona baphathwe ngokufanayo . /Izindawo zabo ngokuvamile zikhona. Ukuqonda le migwaqo kubalulekile ekuqondeni ukuthi iNkantolo Ephakeme ithinta kanjani amacala ayinkimbinkimbi ahilela ukucwaswa, ukuzibusa komuntu siqu, nemingcele yamandla kahulumeni. Njengesazi esingokomthetho David A. Strauss[

Umlando Umongo: ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nane Semvelaphi Nezincazelo Zokuqala

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane sazalwa enseleleni ecindezela kakhulu yenkathi yokuvuselelwa kwezakhiwo: indlela yokuhlanganisa ama-Afrika aseMelika asanda kukhululwa abe izigidi ezine abe yizakhamuzi eziphelele zomphakathi waseMelika. Ngaphambi kokuba akhuliswe, iBhili lamaLungelo lasebenza kuhulumeni kuphela, futhi imibuso yayikhululeke kakhulu ukumisa imithetho eyayihlukanisa noma inciphise amalungelo abantu ayisisekelo. Abalungisi bemithetho bazama ukuguqula lokhu ngokumisa umthetho-mthetho-sisekelo ngesenzo sikahulumeni.

Izimpikiswano Zokulungisa Nokusebenzisa Izidakamizwa

Umbhalo weSigaba 1 seSichibiyelo se 144 ufundeka kanje: "Awukho uHulumeni ozokwenza noma ukuphoqelela noma wuphi umthetho ozovimbela amalungelo noma ukugoma kwezakhamuzi zase-United States; futhi uHulumeni ngeke aphuce noma imuphi umuntu ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho; noma uphike noma ubani ophakathi kwawo onegunya elilinganayo lokuvikela imithetho. I-The Servection and Acial Classible Claussss iyingxenye yemiphatho yemigomo, eceleni kwamalungelo noma i-Immuniocs Claus, nakuba le ngxenye ye-Classiste kakhulu kusukela ekufundweni kweNkanto ephakeme yeNkanto efundwa [[FLD: 0] [Indlu]].[FLD]] .[FLT]] [FLD] [1] [3]

Izinkulumo - mpikiswano eziseSihlalweni se-Congress zembula ukuthi abahleli babehlose ukuba i-Actal Protection Claus eqinisekisa ukuthi imithetho kahulumeni yayiyosebenza ngokulinganayo kubo bonke abantu, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi baluphi uhlanga. UKhongolo-mkhandlu uJohn Bingham wase-Ohio, umklami oyinhloko weSigaba 1, waveza ukuthi lolu hlelo lwaludingeka ukuze kuqikelelwe izimiso zeSimemezelo sokuzimela nokuvimbela ukuba kubekwe umthetho wokukhipha umthetho womthetho wobushiqela. I-STED (UM Procective Claus Claus, ngokwesikhathi samanje, kuqondwa ukuthi kufanele kulandelwe noma yikuphi ukuncishwa kokuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla okulungile okumelwe kuhambisane nezinqubo zokulalela, nokukhetha.

Imfundiso Yokuvumelana Nomthetho Nokwanda Kwenqubo Efanele

Ekupheleni kwekhulu leshumi namashumi amabili namashumi amabili leminyaka, i-Act Process Claus yadlala indima elinganiselwe kakhulu embusweni we-hulumente. Nokho, imfundiso ye- i-contromporation[ .inqubo lapho iNkantolo Ephakeme yasebenzisa khona amalungiselelo eSivumelwano Samalungelo Amalungelo Abantu ezindaweni ngeSiphendulo SeSikhulu seGawula se-Gadiod (INkamputhe Yezinguquko Yesine) Clausle/Dramscle. Ukuqala ngo- Gitlow v. New York[[FLT:] [25]), eyasebenzisa khona izinhlelo zokuvikela zokuqala zenkululeko yokukhuluma, iNkantolo yeNkantolo ka-kantolo cishe ihlanganise zonke iziNkathi zenkululeko ze-Bill, ukuhlanganisa ukufinyelela kwayo phakathi kohulumeni ngabanye.

Ukuzimela kwakungeyona indlela ezenzekelayo noma ezenzekelayo. INkantolo yasebenzisa indlela ekhethayo, ibuza ukuthi ilungelo elithile liyini "ukusekelana necebo lobulungisa laseMelika" no"kuyikhomba emqondweni wenkululeko egunyaziwe," ulimi oluthathwe kuJaji Cardozo] . Connecticut[ [1937]] [197]). Ngesikhathi secebo lokulungisa .[Umgomo wenkululeko].[ULouisiana [[FLT] [[3] [1968]], owafaka ukufaneleka ekuqulweni kwecala lomthetho enkantolo, iNkakhululo yafaka inqubo yobugebengu, iNkulukuvikela komthetho, iNguqulo Lokuqala, nenye izivumelwano ezinhlobo. Namuhla, i-Geneticivemose-ose-Genetic productionstions] kuphela, i-edivetic of progreditions of profredfiedfiedfiedfiedfiedfic.

Inqubo Efanele: Isimiso Sokulinganisa Nokuhluzeka Kwemicu

Inqubo elindelekile ihlukaniswa ngokwesiko yaba imiqondo emibili ehlukene kodwa ehlobene: inqubo edingayo nenqubo efanelekile engaphansi. Zombili zinomsuka ojulile esikweni lomthetho wamaNgisi namaMelika, kodwa izinqubo zazo zanamuhla zihlobene kakhulu neSichibiyelo seSichibiyelo seshumi nane.

Inqubo Elindelekile: Ukuqinisekisa Inqubo Efanele

Inqubo efanelekile idinga ukuba uhulumeni alandele izinqubo ezilungile ngaphambi kokuncisha umuntu ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla. Ukuhlelwa okuvamile kuvela ku- Mathews v. Eldridge [77], lapho iNkantolo Ephakeme imisa khona ukuhlolwa kokulinganisela kathathu kokunquma ukuthi iyiphi inqubo efanelekile. Izinkantolo kumelwe zilinganise: (1) isithakazelo somuntu siqu esithintekayo esitholwe yisenzo sikahulumeni; (2) ingozi yokuncishwa izingozi zephutha ngezindlela ezikhona nangenani elifanele lezokuvikela; (3) nenzalo kahulumeni, kuhlanganise nemithwalo yezokwengamela nezokuphatha ezokwenezela izinqubo.

Loluhlelo luye lwasetshenziswa emongweni omningi, kusukela ekuzweleni kwezentengiselwano ze-Social Security noma ekuqedweni kwemisebenzi yomphakathi. Ukuqonda okuyinhloko kwe Ama-Mathews ukuthi inqubo efanelekile ayikona imfuneko eyodwa-yonke edingayo; kunalokho, inqubo edingekayo ixhomeke ekutheni inzuzo isesimweni esinjani noma imongophi. Isibonelo, umuntu obhekene nezinzuzo zenhlalakahle unelungelo lokulalela ngaphambi kokuba athole, kuyilapho umuntu obekela inselele ukulalelwa komshayeli ilayisensi kungaba nelungelo lokulalela kuphela.

Inqubo Eyinqaba: Ukuvikela Amalungelo Ayisisekelo

Inqubo eyisici efanelekile edingayo impikiswano kakhulu ngoba ihilela ukuvikelwa kwamalungelo okwahlulela okungacaciswanga ngokuqondile eMthethweni. Lemfundiso isekela ukuthi inkululeko ethile eyisisekelo − njengelungelo lokushada, ilungelo lokuba nabantwana, ilungelo lobuqotho bomzimba, nelungelo lokwenza izinqumo ezithinta umuntu siqu zigxile kakhulu emlandweni wesizwe namasiko kangangokuthi uhulumeni akanakuwagxambukela ngaphandle kokulunga okuphoqelelayo.

Isimiso sanamuhla senqubo efanelekile engaphansi komshado saqala Griswold v.Connecticut (65), eyavala umthetho kahulumeni ovimbela ukusetshenziswa kokuvimbela inzalo emhlabathini wokuthi yaphula "ekuhleni kwezemfihlo zomshado"" Justice Douglas, ibhalelwe iningi, edume ngokuyibeka ku "penbras" kanye "nobumba" leMithetho" yeSigqi Samalungelo Abantu, nakuba izenzakalo ezilandelayo zivimbela ukusetshenziswa okuqondile kweNkathi YeSivumelo somshado. [FLT:] Douglass, ibhalisa kwesokudla sokukhishwa kwesisu. [[FLT] v [FLT]][FLT][FLT]3][3] [7] [7]

I- i-Yahington v. Glucksberg (1997) icala, elicashunwe esihlokweni sokuqala, alibalulekile nje kuphela ngenxa yokubamba kwalo − ukuthi ilungelo lokusiza ukuzibulala aliyona inkululeko eyisisekelo − kodwa futhi nendlela yokusebenza eliyishicilelwe. IJaji eliyinhloko Rehnquist limise uvivinyo olubili lokuqaphela amalungelo amasha ayisisekelo ngaphansi kweNkathi Yohlelo ka Claus: okokuqala, ilungelo lokusiza ekuzisizeni limeleni ngokunzulu kulomlando nesiko"; futhi okwesibili, kumelwe ukuba "impelesi sizathu emqondweni wenkululeko" ukuthi kungenziwa ukukhululwa noma ubulungisa uma bebukhona." Lendlela yokumelana nokugxekwa ngokungafanele, futhi incishiswe ngemibandela ewubala imingcele nangamele igwenywe ngokuhlulwa yinkululeko.

Isivikelo Esilinganayo: Ukuyeka Ukuhlukana Kodwa Ukulingana Nokuqapha Okuqinile

I - Act Living Claus iyindlela eyinhloko yokubeka imithetho nemikhuba yokulahla umthetho.

Ukukhula Nokuwa Kokwehlukana Kodwa Okulinganayo

Umlando wakuqala we-Uncimence Protection Claus uphawulwe ngokuhlukana okukhulu phakathi kombhalo wayo nokugcinwa kwayo. Pnety v. Ferguson [1896], iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela umthetho weLouisiana ofuna ukuba abantu bahlukane ngezindlela zesitimela, ukwamukela imfundiso "ehlukene kodwa elinganayo". UJaji Henry Billings Brown, ubhalela abantu abaningi, wacabanga ukuthi i-I Amendulo ye 1449th yayihloselwe "ukuqinisekisa ukulingana okuphelele kwezinhlanga ezimbili phambi komthetho," kodwa lokhu kulingana kwakungadingi ukuqedwa kokwahlulwa kwezenhlalo okusekelwe ezinhlanganisweni. Isinqumo sanikeza isigwebo somthetho ku-Crow phakathi kwe-South ne-Exmassiclascs emashuminics amashumi ayisithupha.

Inkantolo ayizange ivume [[FLT: 0] kwaze kwaba yilapho [[FLT:] v. ibhodi yemfundo (1954) inkantolo yalahla Plarew[. Umphathi weJaji u-Fell Warren, ebhalela iNkantolo ehlangeneyo, wayekholelwa ukuthi ukuhlukaniswa kwezinhlanga ezikoleni zomphakathi kwaphula iSivikeli sikaClausle ngoba sabangela ukuba kubangele "ukuzizwa uphansi" ezingase zithinte izinhliziyo zazo nezingqondo zazo ngendlela ecishe iphinde iphinde iphele." INkanto efundisayo ayilingani," isimiso esizonwebela ezinye izindawo zokuphila komphakathi ngokushesha. [FLT: B] [5]

Ukukhula Kwezinkukhu Zokufunda

Isivikelo sanamuhla esilinganayo sihlelwe ngokulandelana kwesimiso sokuhlola. Imithetho ehlukanisayo esekelwe ku ihlola izimpawu ezithi [ [1] njengesizwe, imvelaphi yesizwe, futhi, kwezinye izimo, i-parace ```iwuculo] ingaphansi kwe''''inxaki' [ ukucubungula], okusho ukuthi umthetho uhlolwe ngokuncane ukuze usebenzele inzuzo kahulumeni. Imithetho esekelwe ku-[FLT:] futhi, kwezinye izimo, idinga inzuzo engcono kakhulu [FLT] [FLD:] [5] [5] [efana , okusho ukuthi izihloko ezithiwe [FT] [FT] [FT] [5] i-flectivenametic syst] [fmediact:[7] i-ediumsss projectivedmentmentation providiation providial providials provesmentmentmentment

Isimiso sophahla sasungulwa kancane kancane phakathi kwamashumi ambalwa eminyaka. Indinganiso yokuhlola okuqinile kokuhlelwa kohlanga yamiswa ngokuphumelelayo ku Korendatsu v. United States (1944]) (nakuba iNkantolo yayisebenzisa ngokudume kakhulu ekusekeleni i-internations yaseMelika) futhi kamuva yaqiniswa ezimweni ezinjenge Livevvv. [[FLT:] [[FLT]] [1977] [197], eyahlasela imithetho elwa namanani ahlukene. Isilinganiso sokuhlola okuphakathi kwezibalo zobufana nabesifazane savela ku-[FLT] v [FLD] [FLT] [FLT] [5] [6], eyanciphisa ukuhlelwa komthetho omthetho owehlukile wobudala, futhi i-Grometivence, futhi ivene yemiphumela ephansi yemiphumela ewumphumela.

Ukuhlangana Kwenqubo Elindelekile Nesivikelo Esilinganayo

Isisekelo esivundile kakhulu sokubekwa komthetho-sisekelo sisemnqamlezweni wenqubo efanele nesivikelo esifanayo. Uma umthetho noma isenzo sikahulumeni sihlanganisa kokubili inkululeko eyisisekelo kanye nokusola noma ukuhlelwa ngokwendlela yokucabanga, izinkantolo kumelwe zihlaziye icala ngelens yezinombolo zombili. Lokhu kuhlaziya okubili kuveza ukucabanga okucebile nokuqinile komthetho-sisekelo.

Inqubo Eyinqaba Efanele Njengomlingisi Wesivikelo Esilinganayo

Enye indlela yokuqonda ubuhlobo yileyo nqubo eyisisekelo eyisisekelo: uma ilungelo liyisisekelo, uhulumeni akanakuliphazamisa ngaphandle kokulilunga okuphoqelelekayo, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi ukujezisa kuyakhetha noma kungumhlaba wonke. Isivikelo esifanayo senezela ungqimba olwengeziwe: ngisho noma umthetho ungamnqini umuntu ilungelo eliyisisekelo, ungabe usengawuphula uMthetho-sisekelo uma ukhetha isisekelo esingathandeki. Ngakho, izigaba ezimbili zisebenza ndawonye ukuqinisekisa ukuthi inkululeko ethile ivikelekile kubo bonke abantu nokuthi akekho owedwa ongenakuphathwa ngendlela elungile ngaphandle kwesizathu esihle.

Isifundo sendaba: Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

Isinqumo esingu-Obergefell v. Hodges simelela mhlawumbe ukucaciswa nokugujwa komshado wenqubo efanelekile nokuqiniswa okulinganayo kombono weNkantolo Ephakeme. Umbono weningi likaKennedy wawuthi imibhangqwana ehlangeneyo ehlangeneyo inelungelo elingokomthetho lokushada ngaphansi kwemithetho emibili. INkantolo yokuqala yahlaziya umbuzo ngaphansi kwenqubo efanelekile, iveza ilungelo lokushada njengenkululeko eyisisekelo esekelwe "umsuka emqondweni we-Ibactware" ne" izimfundiso eziyinhloko zesiko somthetho-mthetho-sisekelo wethu". Yabe iphendulela ekuvikeleni ngokufanayo, igcizelela ukuthi imibhangqwana ehlukene ehlukeneyodwayo "ukukhokha inqulwa kwemibhanqwani ephakathi" ne "ukulingana kwenkululeko yenkululeko yemiphakathi yemiphakathi""."

Okwenza umbono uphawuleke kakhulu uKennedy ukuphikelela kwakhe ukuthi izigaba ezimbili azifani nje kodwa zihlangene: "I-Act Procession Claus ne-Exlimate Protection Claus ixhunyiwe ngendlela ejulile, nakuba ibeka izimiso ezizimele. Amalungelo aphelele ngenkululeko namalungelo aqiniswe ngesivikelo esifanayo angase ahlale emithethweni ehlukene futhi angavumelani njalo, kodwa kwezinye izimo ngalinye lingafundiswa ngencazelo nangokufinyelela kwenye." Le-synthesis isikisela ukuthi ezimweni ezithile, inkululeko nokulingana akuzona nje izici ezimbili ezihlukene kodwa zingaba izici ezimbili ezihlukene zombono womthetho wokuziphatha okuhloniphekile.

Isifundo Sendaba: Lovand v. Virginia (1967)

Cishe amashumi amahlanu eminyaka ngaphambi wehlela, iNkantolo [ku- Virginia ngokufanayo ifaka inqubo efunekayo kanye nokuhlaziywa okulinganayo. Icala elihilela umthetho waseVirginia owenziwe wahlukahluka phakathi kwemibazwe. Umbono weNkanto ehlangene uWarren wawephula umthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho wodwa owawephula i-Cometic Clauslee(*) ngenxa yokuthi wawusekelwe ebalabalazweni, kanye naseMkhandlwini kaClaus e-* ngenxa yokuthi we-ist Clauscree. INkantolo yenqaba ukwahlukanisa izibalo ezimbili, iqaphela ukuthi umthetho ungakwazi ukuthethelelwa ngaphansi kwelungiselelo. [FF:]

Imibono Ephathelene Nezingxenye

Izazi zomthetho ziye zanikeza imibono ehlukahlukene ukuze zichaze ukuhlobana phakathi kwenqubo efanele nesivikelo esifanayo. Ezinye, njengoProfesa Kenneth Karset esihlokweni sakhe esinethonya esithi "Inkululeko Yombutho Womthathi," ziphikisa ngokuthi izigaba ezimbili zihlangene zivikela umqondo obanzi "ubukhoma" ohlanganisa kokubili inkululeko nokulingana. Abanye, njengoProfesa Reva Siegel, baye bagcizelela izindlela zokuvikela lapho izimpikiswano ezilinganayo zingaphinde zihlole inqubo efanelekile ngokubekela inselele inqubo engokomthetho esetshenziswa izinkantolo ekuchazeni amalungelo ayisisekelo. Abanye baphikisa ukuthi izigaba kufanele zigcinwe zicacile ngokulinganayo ukuze kulondolozwe ukugqama nokugcinwa kwemfundiso ngayinye.

Izisebenziso Zamanje Nempikiswano Eqhubekayo

Ukuhlangana kwenqubo efanele nesivikelo esifanayo kuyaqhubeka kubangela eminye yemibuzo ephikiswa kakhulu yomthetho - sisekelo esikhathini sethu.

Ukugunyaza Amalungelo Nemithetho Yezincwadi

Imithetho yokuhlukanisa iye yaba i-point comporant ezombangazwe zaseMelika, abasekeli abaphikisayo bayivimbela ukukhwabanisa futhi abaphikisi abaphikisana ngokungenakuqhathaniswa balahla idlanzana eliyidlana, asebekhulile, nabavoti abathola imali ephansi. Izinselele zemithetho enjalo zivame ukubiza kokubili inqubo efanelekile nesivikelo esifanayo. Iphuzu lokuvikela elifanayo ligxile ethonyeni eliyindinganyelo lalemithetho kunyusi wabavoti abambalwa, licaphuna ubufakazi obungokwezibalo bokuthi izakhamuzi ezimbalwa azinamathuba okuba nesilinganiso esidingekayo. Inqubo efanelekile igcizelela ilungelo eliyisisekelo lokuvota kanye nomthwalo omisiwe ekufuneka kwe-ID egcizelela kulelo lungelo.

INkantolo Ephakeme iye yakhuluma ngalezindaba ezinjengathi Crawford v. Marion County County Board , eyasekela umthetho we-Indinayi ID engaphansi kokuhlolwa okusekelwe emthwalweni. Inkantolo iSikhulu sikaSikhulu isebenzisa umbono olingana nokubukezwa kwesisekelo, iphetha ngokuthi imithwalo yomthetho ilinganiselwe futhi izithakazelo zikahulumeni ekuvimbeleni ukukhwabanisa nokugcina ukuqiniseka komphakathi kokhetho kwakusemthethweni. Nokho, iNkantolo yashiya ivule amathuba okuhlinzwa njengezinselele, futhi ukuphehlwa kwalandela ukuhlola imingcele yomthetho yokuvota ngaphansi kwayo yomibili imiyalo.

Ukufuduka Namalungelo Abafuduki

Umthetho woku-information usendaweni lapho inqubo efanele nesivikelo esilinganayo ngokuvamile kuhlangene khona kodwa lapho amandla kahulumeni abanzi ezindabeni zokufuduka enza kube nzima ukubukeza izindaba zokufuduka. Abangaqiniseki, kuhlanganise nabafuduki abangabhalwanga, "bayi-persons" phakathi kwencazelo ye-Sect Procession Claus futhi ngakho banelungelo lokuvikela i-procededal lapho bebhekene nokususwa. INkantolo Ephakeme yaqaphela lesi simiso Zvydas v. Davis, (2001], eyayikholelwa ukuthi uhulumeni awunakukwazi ukuvimbela i-projectivestion production production production production Clation, njengoba ukubophana okunjalo kungayikhombanga okokugcina, njengoba ukubopha okunga okunga.

Izinselele ezilinganayo zokuvikela abantu abafudukayo aziphumelelanga kakhulu, ngokwengxenye ngenxa yokuthi iNkantolo iye yasebenzisa indinganiso ebanzi esemthethweni ekwahlukaniseni abantu abafudukayo. Mathews v. Diaz, iNkantolo yasekela umthetho kahulumeni owenqabayo ukuthi iMedicara inzuzo ehlala njalo kubantu abangavunyelwe ukuba babe abahlala khona okungenani iminyaka emihlanu, icabanga ukuthi "izimiso ze-United States ngokuqondene nokuphathwa kwabafokazi kuyizindaba ezikhethekile zomthetho we-projectal nezokuphatha abantu abambalwa." Nokho, imithetho yesifunda yabengabe ibhekenezenteko eqinile. [FLT.2] izinselele ezicutshiswe yize.[FLD]v.[FT][3][FT]

Amalungelo Okuzala Nokulingana Kwezinhlanga

Izwe lomthetho-mthetho elizungeze amalungelo okuzala liye lashintsha ngokuphawulekayo eminyakeni yamuva. Phambi [ku- Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization [202], eyalawula [ Roe[[ [naye [FLT]] [[FLT]]] [4] Plat [umthetho] u-Maka [u-“Parents] v. Casey[[FLT] [[FLT]] [1992] futhi yakholelwa ukuthi uMthetho-sisekelo awuliniki ilungelo lokukhipha isisu, amalungelo okuzala ayengelwe kakhulu enqubweni enqubweni efanele. Nokho, izazi eziningi nabasekeli besikhathi eside baye baphikisa ukuthi ukukhishwa kwezisu ezingeni kuvinjelwe ngokulinganayo, ngenxa yokuveza imithwalo eveleleni futhi ubandlululo olungokomlando.

UMahluleli Ginsburg wayengumsekeli ovelele walombono. Embonweni wakhe okhona [ku- Stenberg v. Carhart [2000], waphikisa ngokuthi "izinselele ezingokomthetho zokuvinjelwa okungadingekile ezimisweni zokukhipha isisu azifuni ukulwela umbono othile owemfihlo; kunalokho, zigxile ekunqumeni indlela yokuphila kowesifazane, futhi zijabulele ubunikazi obulinganayo. [[FLT]] amaDobs , abanye abakhi bomthetho abamelene nokukhishwa kwezisu, baveza izinselele ezifanayo zokuvimbela ukukhishwa kwezisu, bephikisa ukuthi lemithetho ehlukanisa isisekelo sokuziphatha futhi ngenxa yokuvikela u-Claussmaste. Uma lendlela iqhubeka iphumelela, kodwa ibonakalisa ukudluliswa kwenqubo yokugwetshwa kwezelele ukuviswa kwecala nokuzala.

Ubulungisa Bobugebengu Bushintsha Nezigaba Zobuhlanga

Isimiso sokwahlulela komthetho sidalula ukungezwani okukhulu phakathi kwenqubo efanele nesivikelo esilinganayo cishe kuzo zonke izinga. Inqubo yokuvikela cishe ngokwezinga. − njengelungelo lokululeka, ilungelo lokuqulwa ngokulunga, kanye nokunqatshelwa kwesijeziso sonya nesokungajwayelekile − kuhloselwe ukuqinisekisa ukuthi abamangalelwa becala baphathwa kahle kungakhathaliseki ukuthi bayini. Kodwa kuphakama ukukhathazeka okulinganayo lapho lezisivikelo zisetshenziswa ngendlela ehlukile ngokohlanga. INkantolo Ephakeme ilwisana nalempikiswano emacala ahilela ukucwasana kwezinhlanga ekukhetheleni abahluleli, ukugweba igweba isigwebo, ukulahla imicimbi, nemikhuba yamaphoyisa.

ku-Batson v. Kentucky (1986), iNkantolo yathi ukusebenzisa komshushisi izinselele zokuhlenga umphetho ukuze akhiphe izijaji ezisekelwe ngokohlanga kuphikisana noMvikeli olinganayo ka-Face Claus. Isinqumo sanyuselwa equngeni lecala eliyinkimbinkimbi elifuna izinkantolo zokuqulwa kwecala ukuze liqhube ukuhlolwa kwecala lapho ummangalelwa ephakamisa inselele: okokuqala, ummangalelwa kumelwe enze i-prigoafacie ebonisa ukucwaswa kohlanga; okwesibili, umshushisi kumelwe anikeze incazelo enzima yohlanga-neutral yeselgement; futhi eyesithathu, inkantolo kumelwe inqume ukuthi umSholi ubandlululo olunenjongo. [FL: B][FLT]

Isiphetho: Ukubaluleka Okuhlala Njalo Kwendawo Engemiphakathi

Ukuhlangana kwenqubo efanele nesivikelo esilinganayo akusona nje isithakazelo sezimfundiso kodwa kuwuhlelo olubalulekile lokuqonda indlela uMthetho-sisekelo ovikela ngayo amalungelo abantu emphakathini oshintshayo. Njengoba iNkantolo Ephakeme ibhekana nezinselele ezintsha mayelana nokuthungatha izinto zobuchwepheshe kuya ekukhetheni amalungelo abantu abathathelwe phambili.

Esinye sezifundo ezibaluleke kakhulu ezicatshangelweni ezixoxwe ngenhla ukuthi inqubo efanelekile nesivikelo esifanayo akuwona izindinganiso ezincintisanayo kodwa yizinto eziphelelisayo. Inkululeko ngaphandle kokulingana ingaba ilungelo kwabambalwa; ukulingana ngaphandle kwenkululeko kungaba yisithembiso esingasho lutho. Uma izinkantolo ziqaphela ukuhlobana okujulile phakathi kwalezi zimiso, zinikeza inkulumo egcwele embonweni weSichibiyelo seSichibiyelo seGandezi se 144 senhlangano lapho bonke abantu bekhululekile futhi belingana khona phambi komthetho. Njengoba uMahlulele uKennedys uKennedy ebhalwe [OLT] wehlela , "Izizukulwane ezabhala futhi zandisa inqubo elinganayo yokwazi i-Bill yamaLungelo ne-Grencesting ye-14nith Reformationsting ayizange iqaphele isilinganiso sokukhululeka kwabantu bonke abaphila ngayo.[3]

Ukufunda Okwengeziwe Nemithombo