Kuyini Ukukholelwa KuNkulunkulu?

Umthetho-sisekelo uyinkolelo-mbono yokuchaza okufunwa ukunikeza igunya elibophayo embhalweni woMthetho-sisekelo njengoba ekuqaleni kwakuqondwa yilabo abawufaka futhi bawugunyaza. Inkolelo eyisisekelo iwukuthi incazelo yombhalo womthetho-sisekelo imiswe ngesikhathi sokumiswa kwesivumelwano futhi akufanele ishintshe ukubuyiselwa okungokomthetho. Abaxhasi, kuhlanganise noMahluleli Antonin Scalia kanye noMahluleli wamanje uClarence Thomas, baphikisa ngokuthi ubuShona bokuqala bunikeza isakhiwo esicacile, esiqinile, nese-demodecricial sokwenza isinqumo sokwahlulela, sivimbela abahluleli ukuba bafake umthetho wabo siqu omthetho.

Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi ubuShona bungaqina kakhulu, bufihle ukuqonda okuphelelwe isikhathi nentuthuko yezenhlalo. Baphawula ukuthi abafaki befomethi ngokwabo abavumelani nezindaba eziningi nokuthi ukuqonda "incazelo yokuqala" ngokuvamile kunzima noma akunakwenzeka. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ukusebenza kobu qobo ezinkingeni zanamuhla , njengobumfihlo beze-mini, ubuchwepheshe bokuzala obuthuthukisiwe, noma ukucabanga okufanayo okungathuthukisa ukuqonda kokuqala okungaqasheki. Lokhu kungathi sína kakhulu uma kucatshangelwa amalungelo abesifazane, okukuma kwabo okungokomthetho kuye kwashintsha ngokuphawulekayo kusukela enkathini eFuzwiweyo.

Amalungelo Abesifazane Nomthetho - sisekelo

Umthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S., njengoba wagunyazwa ngo-1788, wawungabhekiseli ngokuqondile emalungelweni abesifazane. Isikhundla esingokomthetho sabesifazane ngaleso sikhathi sasibuswa yimfundiso engokomthetho ejwayelekile yezembozo, lapho owesifazane oshadile ayebekwa khona umthetho ngokomthetho ngokomthetho yindoda yakhe. Abesifazane babengenakuvota, babenesikhundla somphakathi, bakhonze ezindaweni zokwahlulela, noma impahla yabo siqu ngegama labo. Izimiso zomthetho zakuqala zifana no-Claus (Article IV) kanye nesiqinisekiso sikahulumeni (Arbacle IV, ingxenye 4) zazingaqondwangaqondi ukuthi abesifazane bangabahlanganyeli ezindaweni ezithile.

Kwakungemva kweMpi Yombango nokuhlanekezelwa kwe- IsiHluvathi semithetho [ (168]) lapho uMthetho-sisekelo waqala ukunikeza isisekelo sombhalo sokulingana kwabesilisa nabesifazane. ISivikelo sika-Celal sinikeza ukuthi akukho mbuso "owenzelwe umuntu onegunya lokuvikela imithetho ngokulinganayo. Nakuba ukunqandwa kwasekuqaleni kwakuhloselwe ukuvikela amalungelo abantu baseAfrika abasanda kukhululwa, igama elithi "person" liyi-neutral. Ngekhulu elilandelayo, iNkanto ephakeme i-Clauslet quetting Claus ecutting ecustonedment with witte imithetho ekhethayo ngesisekelo sobulili, ekuqaleni [FFOT:][5].[5] [5]

ISichibiyelo se-Ninetenth (2020) saqinisekisa abesifazane ngokuqondile ilungelo lokuvota, kodwa asizange sikhulume ngezindlela ezibanzi zokungalingani ngokomthetho. ISichibiyelo samaLungelo [[ [ERA], esasiyonikeza umthetho ocacile wemithetho-mthethweni we-scrinial perfectal personal percents percents, yahlongoniswa ngo-197272 kodwa ekugcineni yahluleka ukufinyelela isilinganiso esidingekayo ngenani elidingekayo lemibuso. Lokhu kushiye isivikelo esilinganayo soMgangatho womthetho-Claus evikela amalungelo abesifazane, ukwenza indlela yokuchaza i-Externadius (encertic produratic productional prolitial)

Ukuqamba Amanga Namalungelo Ohlanga: Ukungezwani Nokungavikeleki

AmaFramers angenaso isiteji kanye neshumi elinesibhozo nenani lamaNarm

Ngaphansi kwendlela eqinile yokusekela inguquko, uMthetho-sisekelo uchazwa ngokwencazelo yokuqala yomphakathi yombhalo wawo. Ngesikhathi sokusungulwa, abesifazane babebhekwa njengabangaphansi kwamadoda ngokomthetho ezicini eziningi. Abadwebi be-flamests abazange babheke abesifazane njengabahlanganyela abalinganayo emphakathini wezombangazwe; yebo, ukusetshenziswa "ye" no"hi" phakathi noMthetho-sisekelo wokuqala kwakuveza umbono wokuthi ukuphila komphakathi kwakungokwabesilisa kuphela. Kubantu bokuqala, le mibandela engokomlando: injongo yoMthetho-sisekelo ayinwebi ngenxa nje yokushintsha kwezindinganiso zomphakathi.

Abanye abasunguli bezincwadi zakudala, njengoMahluleli Scalia, baphikisa ngokuthi ekuqaleni i-Umeal Protection Claus yayingaqondwa njengenqabela izinhlobo eziningi zokucwaswa ngokobulili. Ngokombono wakhe, u-Claus wayekhathalela ngokuyinhloko ukucwaswa kwezinhlanga namadoda amnyama, futhi noma ikuphi ukwenezelwa kwabesifazane kwakudinga ukushintshwa komthetho-sisekelo − hhayi ukuchazwa kabusha kwemithetho yokwahlulela. Lesi simo sisikisela ukuthi imithetho ephatha abesifazane ngokuhlukile kumadoda iwumthetho ngokomthetho ngaphandle kokuba bangenangqondo ngokuphelele, indinga ukuba kube nemithetho eminingi yokucwasa ngomthetho eyayivamile ngaphambi kowe-1970.

Ukuqala Okubanzi Nencazelo Ye-"Personal"

Akubona bonke abakholelwa ekubukweni kokuqala abamukela umbono omncane kanjalo. Ezinye izazi, njengo-John O. McGinnis kanye no-Michael B. Rappaport, zisekela "izindlela zokuqala zobuStatu," ezibheka emithethweni echazayo abasebenzi ngokwabo abayobe beyisebenzisa. Ngaphansi kwalendlela, igama elithi "person" eMthethweni we-Gandementation [i-145] linencazelo eqinile ehlanganisa zonke izidalwa zabantu, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi zingobulili obulinganayo. Ukuqonda kwasekuqaleni "unyaka" isivikelo" kungase kube kubanzi kune-Mahluleli. Isibonelo, izilinganiso zemithetho ye-Genedimentimethis ayazi ukuthi eminye imithetho elandelwa ngokuphikisa imithetho elandelwayo, imithetho ehlukene, nokuncishwa ngokuncishwa kwemithetho elandela imithetho eyisisekelo.

Ngaphezu kwalokho, ukucabanga kokuqala kungasetshenziswa enqubeni ye- isigaba esisekelwe ku-exten gabas ngokugxila encazelweni ecacile yombhalo. I-Mumeal Protection Claus enqabela ukulahla "isivikelo esifanayo semithetho." Uma umthetho ubekwa ngokwesisekelo sesisekelo sobulili, umsunguli angabuza ukuthi ukuhlelwa ngokwesiko kwakuqondwa ngokwesiko ukuba kuphakathi kwesilinganiso sesenzo esivunyelwe sombuso. Ngisho noma abalawuli be-freames bemukela imithetho eminingi esekelwe ebulilini, bangase baqaphele ukuthi imibandela ethile (umz., leyo esekelwe ohlawulweni) iyasolwa ngokukhululekile. Umbuzo ungabuza ukuthi incazelo yokuqala ingaba ikwazi yini ukucubunga phakathi phakathi kwesigaba sokubukeza ubulili obusetshenziswayo manje.[5] noma izinga lokubunye ukubukiswa kwendiselwa ngokwezinga elivamile.

Amacala Aphawulekayo Nokucabanga Kwabantu Besandulela

[[Umthetho:0] Ibuyiselwe v. I-Red (1971) kanye nokuqala kwemfundiso yanamuhla yokungalingani

Ku ephawuliwe v. Reed, iNkantolo Ephakeme yashaya umthetho we-Idaho owanika amadoda ukukhetha okuzenzekelayo kwabesifazane ekuqondiseni izindawo. Ukubhalela iNkantolo ehlangene, uMahluleli omkhulu uWarren Burger wakholelwa ukuthi umthetho wephula umthetho olinganayo weSivikeli sika-Clauslet' ngoba wawuwu "ngowesikhuseli" futhi awuhlobenenga kakhulu nesithakazelo esingokomthetho. Inkantolo ayizange yamukelangakhonzi ukucunulwa noma isiphi isivivinyo esikhethekile sokuziphatha ngokobulili; yamane yasebenzisa isisekelo esinengqondo futhi yathola ukuthi ayinangqondo. Abesifazane abaguquli bangawumukela lo mphumela ngenxa yesizathu esihle, futhi injongo yokuqala ye-"ivimbela ukuhlukaniswa okungalawuleki. Nokho, [FFFF] [3]

Craig v. Boren [19976] kanye ne-intermediate Scrutiny

Ku Craig v. Boren, iNkantolo yasungula ukucubungula okuphakathi kokuhlelwa okusekelwe ebulilini, ifuna ukuba bakhonze "izinjongo zikahulumeni ezibalulekile" futhi "kuhlobene" naleyomigomo. Lokhu kuhlola kudinga kakhulu kunesisekelo esinengqondo kodwa esiqinile kunokucuphelisisa kakhulu. UMahluleli William Brennan, ebhalela iningi, akazange asekele isinqumo ekucabangeni kokuqala; kunalokho, wancika ekuvumelaneni okukhulayo ngokumelene nobandlululo lwezitho zobulili kanye nokuqonda isivikelo esilinganayo kweNkanto.

Abagxeki bokuqala baphikisa ngokuthi Craig yayiwukusungulwa kokwahlulela okungasekelwe encazelweni yokuqala yeSichibiyelo seshumi nane. IJaji Rehnquist yaphikisa, igcizelela ukuthi izifemu zeSichibiyeli zazingahlosile ukucubungula kakhulu izinhlelo zocansi. Uma ubuProstomstism babusetshenziswa ngokusemthethweni, imithetho eminingi esekelwe ebulilini engekho sisekelo sencazelo yakuqala yencazelo yakuqala. `Imithetho ebekelwe amadoda imisebenzi ethile noma ibeke imingcele yesivumelwano sabesifazane] ibe ngumthetho-mthetho, ngisho noma ibonakala ingenabulungisa namuhla. Lokhu kuveza inseleleko yokuqala ibheke ekulinganisweni kwanamuhla.

United States v. Virginia (1996) kanye ne-VMI Case

Isinqumo samuva kakhulu sokulingana kwabesilisa nabesifazane singu [[FLT] United States v. Virginia , lapho iNkantolo yayithi khona i-Virginia Military Institute of Military Institute imvume yamadoda kuphela yenkambiso yokuvuma umthetho weSiviko sika Claus olinganayo. UJaji Ruth Bader Ginsburg, ubhalela iningi, inguquko yokuhlola okudinga "ukuthethelela ngokunye okuyekelelayo" ukucwala kwenkanuko yobulili. INkantolo yenqaba izimpikiswano zeVirginia ezazinikeza imfundo eyodwa engokwenani elihlukeneyo nokuthi abesifazane babezoguqula kakhulu i-VMIA uqeqesho lwezinculo.

Ukufundisa kokuqala akuwusekeli umphumela VMI. Ngesikhathi sokubekwa kweSichibiyelo se 14th, izikole zezempi ezixhaswe umphakathi zazivuleke kubantu kuphela, futhi akekho noyedwa owacabanga ukuthi u-Ecult Protection Claus efunwa ngenye indlela. Umahluleli wokuqala wayengase asekele inkambiso ye-VMI, akhomba ukuqonda kwasekuqaleni ukuthi umehluko osekelwe emfundisweni weze rimbewu wawuvunyelwe. Nokho iNkantolo yanquma 7-1 ukuthi ubandlululo olunjalo lungaqondani. Isinqumo siveza indlela ephilayo yomthetho evumelanisa umthetho we-VMI, ukushintsha indlela engokolwazi lwezemfundo.

Izinselele Zokuqala Zanamuhla: “Incazelo Engokokuqala" YeSichibiyelo Seshumi Nane

Ezinye izazi zokuqala ziphikisa ngokuthi incazelo yokuqala yeSichibiyelo seshumi nane isekela isivikelo esiqinile sokulingana kwabesilisa nabesifazane kunalokho okuvame ukucatshangwa. Ngokwesibonelo, iProfessing Steven G. Calabrasi iphikise ngokuthi incazelo yokuqala yasobala ye "izentengo noma ukugonyelwa" eSiphendulweni seshumi nane" ihlanganisa amalungelo ahlukahlukene angokomthetho abesifazane abawaphethe, njengalungelo lempahla nesivumelwano. Ngalombono, amalungelo noma i-Immunicreace Claus eSivice sokulinganisa amalungelo abesifazane. Nokho, iNkanto ephakeme iye yalahla kakhulu lendlela yokuvikela, ukugcina ukulingana.

Omunye umsuka wempikiswano yokuqala ugxila encazelweni ewukuthi yasekuqaleni "isivikelo esilinganayo" ngokwayo. Izazimlando ziye zabonisa ukuthi abakhi beSichibiyelo se 14neth bathonywe yi-Civil Rights Act ka-1866, eqinisekisa bonke abantu ilungelo elifanayo lokwenza izivumelwano nefa lempahla njengezakhamuzi ezimhlophe. Ngokuhlanganisa ulimi oluvimbela "umthetho noma isiko" oluzovimbela lamalungelo, iSichibiyelo kungenzeka sasihloselwe ukuqeda ukucwasana okungenazimiso ngokungenangqondo nanoma yiliphi iqembu, kuhlanganise nabesifazane. Nakuba lencazelo ifaka iphuzu lokuthi ukuthatheka komthetho kudinga ukulwa kwelungelo lokuqala.

Izimpikiswano Zesikhathi Esizayo Phakathi Kwezazi

Ingabe Ukuqamba Kwabesifazane Kuwavimbela Ngokungenakugwenywa Amalungelo Abesifazane?

Izazi eziningi zamalungelo abesifazane ezingokomthetho ziphikisa ngokuthi umthetho wokuqala umelene kakhulu nokulingana kwabesilisa nabesifazane. Catharine MacKinnon kanye no-Martal Nussbaum [ uphikisa ngokuthi uMthetho-sisekelo wokuqala wawuyindawo ehlangene phakathi kwamadoda amhlophe ahlukanisa ngokuqondile abesifazane namanye amaqembu. Ukuzama ukulingana kwabesifazane kule mibhalo, bathi, kuwukuchaza ukuthi awusoze walungisa ngokuphelele ukufaneleka kokwakheka kombhalo. Ngoba, yindlela ephilayo yomthetho womthetho kuphela yokusebenza esemthethweni evumelana nabesifazaneni.

Ezinye izazi zithatha umbono oqondakale kakhulu. Kimberlé Crenshaw ziphikisa ngokuthi ukuhlaziya kokuhlangana kwezembulela ukuthi ukusungula kungavikela futhi kulimaze abesifazane ngokuphelele. Ngasikhathi sinye, ubuKhomanisi bungasetshenziselwa ukuqeda izinhlelo eziklanyelwe ukuxazulula ukucwaswa okungokomlando, emhlabathini wokuthi i-Suclement Claus iqondwa njengenqabela ubandlululo nolweziqu zenkanuko yobulili ngokuphelele. Ngaso sinye isikhathi, uqobo lungalinganisela amandla omthetho ofana nomthetho owenziwe ngokumelene noMadodakazi, owenziwe ngokwengxenye [FOLT:2] eUnited States.[FFOLD] v [FF][3]

Ingabe Ukuzalwa Kwawo Kungavumelana Nezinkinga Zanamuhla Zezinhlanga?

Abanye abaqambi be-fromatics basikisela indlela yokuchaza "incazelo yomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo ejwayelekile", ehlanganisa incazelo yokuqala noshintsho oluphindaphindiwe. Justice Stephen Breyer, nakuba engeyena umsunguli wendalo, iye yabiza indlela yokuchaza okuvamile ecabangela imiphumela. Okwamanje, abenzi bokuqala abanjengo [[FLT:] [[FLT]] Barnett[ baphikisa ukuthi incazelo yokuqala yomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo ivikela wonke amalungelo emvelo, kuhlanganise nelungelo labesifazane lokukhululeka ucalucalucalulo olusekelwe emo. Umthetho ovamile uveza ukuthi uyini umphumela osekelwe ekwakhelweni oluqinile. Umthetho u-Barnet'uqualo "umqondo wokuqala" wokufunda i-Genetic Reformation shovencestion cishe ifuna ukuhlose ukuhlelwa kwesilinganiso esiqinile, isibonelo esivamile. Lokhu okubekwayo ngokomlando ubufakazi obukanele ukuba usho ukuthi umehluko.

Indima Yokukhohlisa Kwamaqaba Nezinkanyiso

Ngisho naphakathi kwabahluleli bokuqala, kunempikiswano ngobukhulu besikhathi esidlule. UMahluleli uScalia wayezimisele ukugumbuqela izinqumo zangaphambili ayekholelwa ukuthi zazinqunywe ngokungalungile, kuhlanganise Roe v. Wade no-[FLT:][FLT]][FLT]] i-Parenthodial v. Amajaji amaningi okuqala [ukuqinisekisa ilungelo lokukhipha isisu)]. Ngokuphambene, uMahluleli omkhulu uJohn Roberts ugcizelele ukubaluleka kobukhazi, ikakhulukazi "isibonelo esinciphile anciswe phakathi kwamashumi eminyaka. Abahluleli bokuqala baye basebenzisa ukucusumbula phakathi kwezinkantolo eziphansi ngisho noma becabanga ngasese [FLT:] [Fregs.[5] [flect: Fregs, inqulution, ikakhulukazi ngenxa yemithetho yokuqala emisha.

Isiphetho

Umthetho-sisekelo uyaqhubeka unamandla ekuchazeni, futhi ubuhlobo bawo namalungelo abesifazane buyinkimbinkimbi. Umthetho-sisekelo wokuqala awuzange ukuvikele ngokuqondile ukulingana kwabesifazane, kodwa isiHlanzi seSichibiyelo seshumi nane esibanzi se "person" ne"sivikelo esilinganayo" zingachazwa ngezindlela ezisekela ubulungisa bobufanayo − noma ukunciphisa. Izenzakalo zokugwema ezisuka [ku-[QLT:0] v. Reed ku-[FLT] United States v. Virginia zibonisa ukuthi iNkantolo ephakeme ithathele ngokuyinhloko umsizi ophilayo ekuqondeni ukucwasana ngokobulili, esebenzisa ukucunula ngokucunulisayo ukuthi abaqalayo bagxeka kakhulu njengokungathembekile.

Kodwa ukukholelwa kobufandamentali akuyona into eyodwa. Ezinye izazi nabahluleli bakuqala bakholelwa ukuthi incazelo yokuqala yoMthetho-sisekelo, eqondwa kahle, ivimbela izinhlobo eziningi zokucwaswa kobulili futhi idinga ngisho nendinganiso eqinile yokubukeza. Abanye bagomela ukuthi ukuqonda kwakuqala kuvumela izindima ezisekelwe ngokwesiko zezobulili ngaphandle kokuba kunqatshwe ngokuqondile ukuguquguquka. Impikiswano eqhubekayo igcizelela ukuthi ukuchazwa komthetho-sisekelo akuyona nje inqubo yobuchwepheshe, kuveza izibophono ezinzulu ngombuso wentando yeningi, ukulingana, nendima yejajidicadiary. Njengoba amalungelo abesifazane ayaqhubeka eguquka ngeligigame, umthetho, nokushintsha kwezenhlalo, umbuzo wokuthi uzoba khona kanjani umthetho-sisekelo. Ukuba ukuchazwa komthetho-mthetho kungenziwa noma kungaba yikho ukulingana okuphelele, noma kungaba ngezindlela ezingokomthetho ezingokomthetho ezimele zichazwe ngokwezizukulwane.

Ukuze ufunde ngokwengeziwe, bheka i-Cornell Legin Information’s ukucubungula kwesivikelo esifanayo [, i-American Bar Association's memone yengxoxo yokulingana kwabesilisa kanye nencazelo yomthetho-sisekelo [, kanye nombono weNkantolo ye-Supreme] ku [[FLT:]5] United States v. Virginia[FLT]