Ukuqonda Inkolelo - ze Ekabili: Isivikelo Somthetho - sisekelo Nezimiso Ze - core

Isimiso sengozi ephindwe kabili singenye yezivikelo ezibaluleke kakhulu emthethweni wobugebengu, sivimbela isimo ekubekeni umuntu icala noma izijeziso zecala elifanayo. Lesivikelo sisekelwe ngokujulile esikweni lomthetho wama-Anglo-American, nemvelaphi elandela umthetho wasendulo nemithetho yamaNgisi evamile i-debet bis vis e una ea eadem causa

E-United States, izingozi eziphindwe kabili zivikelwe ngokucacile yiSichibiyelo sesihlanu kuMthetho-sisekelo, esinikeza ukuthi akekho umuntu “ozobekwa esiphathweni somthetho ofanayo ukuze abekwe engozini ephindwe kabili yokuphila noma isitho somzimba.” Lesi siqinisekiso sisebenza ezifundazweni nge-Active Procession ye 144th Reformation Claus. Injongo eyisisekelo iphindwe kathathu: ukuvikela abantu ezimalini, ezingokomzwelo, nasedumeleni lokuqulwa ngokuphindaphindiwe; ukulondoloza ukuphela kwezahlulelo; nokuvimbela ukuchukulunywa noma ukuhlukunyezwa.

Isivikelo sixhunyiwe uma ummangalelwa ebekwe engozini − kaningi ngemva kokuba ijaji selifungwe futhi lifungwe icala lejaji, noma lapho ufakazi wokuqala efungqwe enkantolo yebhentshi. Uma igaxwa, impoqo ibopha isigwebo esifanayo. Nokho, incazelo eqondile yecala elifanayo "lodwa" kanye nezimo lapho ubufakazi obuvela phambili bungasetshenziswa ekuqulweni kwecala kamuva idinga ukuhlaziywa ngokucophelela.

Ikhona Nini Ingozi Ephindwe Kabili?

Okunamathiselwe Engozini

Ngaphambi kokuba kuvele isivikelo esiphindwe kabili, izingozi kumelwe zixhumene. Ecaleni eliqulwa abahluleli, izingozi zinamathela lapho inkantolo ifunga. Ecaleni lebhentshi, linamathela lapho inkantolo iqala ukuthatha ubufakazi. Uma icala lixoshwa ngaphambi kokuba izingozi zinamathele, uhulumeni ngokuvamile angawabuyisela amacala ngaphandle kokuphula uMthetho-sisekelo. Lomehluko ubalulekile ngoba unquma ukuthi ummangalelwa olandelayo ubhekwa njengowokuqulwa “owesibili” enkantolo ngenxa yecala elifanayo.

Ukulahlwa Kwecala

Uma ummangalelwa ekhululwa (etholakele engenacala), ingozi ephindwe kabili ivala ikhambi lobugebengu obufanayo, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi ukulahlwa kungaba yiphutha kangakanani. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yathi ngisho nephutha elingokomthetho lokuvala icala alinakudluliswa noma liphinde liqulwe. Ngokungafani, uma icala liphela ngokuphambanisa , ngokwesibonelo, ngenxa yejaji elilengiwe noma okusobala okudingekile, ummangalelwa angaphinde abekwe ngaphandle kokwephula izingozi eziphindwe kabili, uma nje icala lingabangelwa ukungafanele komshushisi ohloselwe ukuphoqelela ummangalelwa ukuba athathe icala.

Umqondo wesithi “Icala Lezehlo”: I-Blockburger Susition

Umbuzo oyinhloko ekuhlaziyweni kabili kwezingozi uwukuthi amacala asemshungwini wesibili awe-“umthetho ofanayo” njengalawo asekuqaleni. Ukuhlolwa okuphambili yi- shitburger ukuhlolwa [, esungulwe ku-'u-'mnqaka] v. United States [[1932]] [ukuhlola okukokuqala]. Ngaphansi kwalokhu kuhlola, amacala amabili ayafana uma ngalinye lingadingi ubufakazi bengxenye engabudingi. Ngamanye amazwi, uma ubugebengu buhlanganisa ubuncane, ukumangalelwa okuko kokubili, kungaphazamisa izingozi ezimbili. Nokho, uma ubugebengu obunye buye bucatshangelwa ngokungafani, buye buye bahluka futhi buye bazama ngokulandelana.

Ngokwesibonelo, uma ummangalelwa ekhululiwe ekuphangeni kodwa kamuva ebekwe icala lokuhlasela okuvela esenzweni esifanayo, inkantolo kumelwe ihlole izimo ezingokomthetho. U-Robery udinga ukuthatha impahla ngempoqo noma ngosongo, kuyilapho ukuhlasela kudinga ukulimala komzimba noma ukwesaba ukulimala. Uma ukuhlasela kungadingi ukuthathwa, amacala angase ahluke. Kodwa uma icala lokuhlasela liwukuziphatha okufanayo kakade okucushwe, ukulimala okuphindwe kabili kungasibekela ngaphansi kwemfundiso epaltal email []

ICollateral Estopel Nempikiswano

Ingozi ephindwe kabili ihlanganisa nesimiso sokumelanisa i-estoperal estopel, ngezinye izikhathi esibizwa ngokuthi impikiswano engaphambili, evimbela uhulumeni ekukhipheni indaba eyayinqunywe ngempela emseni wommangalelwa ngaphambili. Icala eliyinhloko yi- Aspeas [[Flatel eb]. USwenson [1970], lapho iNkantolo Ephakeme yathi ngemva kokuba ummangalelwa ephuce esinye sezisulu eziyisithupha, uhulumeni akakwazanga ukumvumela ukuba athathe esinye isisulu ngoba isinqumo sangaphambili sathola ukuthi akayena omunye wabaphangi. Collalbal evingl evimbela uhulumeni ukuba “ukwehluliwe” ekulisweni kwecala elilodwa ukuze athole ukukhohliswa.

Ukusetshenziswa Kobufakazi Ekulingweni Okulandelayo: Isimiso Esivamile

Ngisho noma ingozi ephindwe kabili ingayivaleli isigwebo sesibili, ngenxa yokuthi icala lokuqala liyicala elihlukile noma ngenxa yokuthi icala laphela ngaphandle kwesahlulelo sokugcina, umbuzo wokuthi yibuphi ubufakazi bokuqulwa kwecala lokuqala obungase buqaliswe ekuqulweni kwecala kokuqala obungahlala bubalulekile. Izinkantolo kumelwe zilinganisele inani eliphambili lobufakazi obumelene nengozi yokucwaswa ngokungafanele, ikakhulukazi ubufakazi obungase busikisele isigebengu noma izenzo ezimbi zangaphambili.

Ngokuvamile, ubufakazi obuvela ekuqulweni kwecala kwangaphambi kovivinyo bungasetshenziswa ekuqulweni kwecala elilandelayo uma: (1) amacala ahlukile futhi asetshenziswa kabili; (2) ubufakazi bubalulekile futhi bunemininingwane endabeni yesibili; futhi (3) ukubaluleka kwawo okungokwengcaca kudlula noma yimuphi umphumela wokusola. Nokho, ukusetshenziswa kobufakazi obanikezwa ngaphambili futhi benqatshwa, noma ubufakazi obabuyindaba yokulahlwa komuntu onecala, kuphakamisa ukukhathazeka okukhethekile.

Ubufakazi Bokuziphatha Okufanele

Impikiswano ephikisayo iwukuthi uhulumeni angasebenzisa yini ubufakazi bokuziphatha ummangalelwa akhululwa ngakho ecaleni lakhe langaphambili njengengxenye yobufakazi obusha. INkantolo Ephakeme yakhuluma lokhu United States v. Watts (1997), iphethe ukuthi inkantolo egwebayo ingacabangela ukuziphatha okungagunyaziwe okungagunyaziwe uma kufakazelwa ukumangalelwa okungakhokhwa uma kufakazelwa ngokuqhubekayo kobufakazi obusha. Kamuva, Dowling v. United States [1990]), iNkanto evumela ukumiswa kobufakazi obususiwe ngaphambi kokuba ubugebengu buboniswe noma injongo ethile, njengoba i - komiti eyalwa ukuthi ubugebengu obuwusizo bususiwe.

Muva nje, iNkantolo ku Wiscon v. Mitchell (1993) yavumela ubufakazi benkulumo evikelekile (izinkulumo zangaphambili zommangalelwa) ecaleni lobugebengu benzondo, ngisho noma inkulumo ngokwayo yayingeyiyo igebe. Isihluthulelo siwukuthi ubufakazi abusetshenziselwa ukujezisa ukuziphatha kwangaphambili kodwa ukufakazela isici secala elisha.

Izimo Ezihlukile

Imfundiso Yababusi Abahlukene

Ngaphansi kwemfundiso yobukhosi obubili, izikhundla ezihlukene (isib., ohulumeni bamazwe nohulumeni) zingamangalela umuntu oyedwa ngokuziphatha okufanayo ngaphandle kokwephula izingozi ezimbili. Lokhu kusho ukuthi ukulahlwa kwecala enkantolo yombuso akuvaleli ukumangalelwa kukahulumeni ngesenzo esifanayo, futhi okuphambene nesizathu. Ngokwesibonelo, umuntu okhululiwe ekubulaleni enkantolo yombuso angabe esaqulwa icala elingokomthetho elisekelwe ekubulaleni okufanayo. Lemfundiso igxekwe kodwa ihlala ihleli isemthethweni. Ubufakazi bokuqulwa kokuqala ngokuvamile bungasetshenziswa ekuqulweni kwecala lesibili, uma nje kungenziwangakhokhwa ngaphansi kwemithetho yaleyonkantolo.

Ukuphinde Utholakale Ngemva Kokukhanga Okuphumelelayo

Uma ummangalelwa edlulisa isiqinisekiso futhi ephumelela ekuvunyelani, uhulumeni uvunyelwe ukuphinde aphendule ummangalelwa icala elifanayo. Isizathu siwukuthi ummangalelwa, ngokukhanga, ususa isivikelo ekuqulweni kwesibili, kodwa ukubuyiselwa akubangelwanga ubufakazi obunganele (obebungaba ukuvunywa ngokungafanele kwezinjongo eziphindwe kabili). Embonini yokulungisa, ubufakazi obabusetshenziswa ekuqulweni kokuqala buvame ukubonakala bungakholeki, kodwa noma yiziphi izinqumo ezisobala ezaziyisisekelo sokudluliswa kwecala zingathinta lokho okungase kuqalwe. Ngokwesibonelo, uma ubufakazi bungaphinde buvunywe ngokungafanele, bungasetshenziswa ngaphandle kokuba iphutha elingokomthetho lilungiswe noma ubufakazi bungalungiseki ngokwenye indlela.

Ukuqulwa Kwecala Okungalungile Noma Ukuqedwa Kwecala

Njengoba kuphawuliwe, ukuqulwa kwecala ngenxa yabahluleli abalengiwe noma okusobala okudingekile ngokuvamile kuvumela ukuqulwa kwecala. Ezindabeni ezinjalo, ubufakazi obuvela ekuqulweni kwecala elikhishwayo bungabuyiselwa. Nokho, uma ukuqulwa kwecala okungalungile kwabangelwa ukuziphatha okubi komshushisi okuhloselwe ukuba abamangalelwa babe nobandlululo, inkantolo ingavala ikhambi ngaphansi “kokucasulwa ngenhloso” indinganiso [[FLT: 0] ye-Oregon v. Kennedy[[FL:1]

Imingcele Ewubufakazi Bezenzakalo Zangaphambili: Iziphazamiso Eziwusizo

Ngisho noma izingozi eziphindwe kabili zingabubekeli imingcele ukuququzelelwa, imithetho esobala ingalinganisela lokho okungase kwakhiwe. Imithetho esemthethweni yobufakazi (nemithetho kahulumeni eyingozi) ibeka imingcele. Imithetho 404(b) ngokuvamile ivimbela ubufakazi bezinye izenzo zobugebengu, noma izenzo zokubonisa ukuthambekela kobugebengu. Ubufakazi obunjalo bungaba obungakholeki kwezinye izinjongo, njengethuba, icebo, icebo, ulwazi, ukukhomba, noma ukungakhohliswa. Uma ukuqulwa kwangaphambili kuhilela ukuziphatha okuhambisana nalokhu okungathandeki, ubufakazi bungavela kulokhu kumele kulinganiswe nokubaluleka kwayo kwenani eliphansi komthetho ongafanele ngaphansi kwe-40.

Ngaphezu kwalokho, imigaqo evimbela ukusetshenziswa kobufakazi ekuqulweni kokuqala. Uma ufakazi owafakaza ekuqulweni kokuqala engekho okwesibili, ubufakazi bangaphambili bungavela ngaphansi kwezwi elihlukile lobufakazi bangaphambili (Rule 804(b)(1)), uma ummangalelwa wayenethuba nesisusa esifanayo sokunqamule ufakazi phambili. Lokhu ngokuvamile kuvela ngezindlela eziphinde zibuye zihlolwe ngemva kokuba isiqinisekiso sehlehliwe.

Icala Eliyinhloko LeNkantolo Eliyinqaba

UDixon (1990) u - United States uphinde ashaye iso

Kulelicala eliyingqophamlando, iNkantolo Ephakeme yacacisa ukusebenza kwezingozi ezimbili ezilandelanayo emacaleni ngaphansi kwemithetho ehlukene. INkantolo yaphetha ngokuthi ukuhlolwa kweBlockburger kuwukuphela kwendinganiso yokunquma ukuthi amacala amabili ayafana yini ngezinjongo eziphindwe kabili, ukwenqaba “ukuhlola okufanayo” ecaleni lokuqala. Lesi sinqumo sanciphisa isivikelo ngezinye izindlela kodwa sanikeza isiqondiso esicacile kubashushisi nezinkantolo.

UGrady v. Corbin (1990)

Kulendaba, iNkantolo yayithi ingozi ephindwe kabili yayivimbela ukuqulwa kwecala kokwesibili okusekelwe ekuziphatheni okufanayo ngisho noma amalungu omthetho ayehlukene. Nokho, isinqumo sahlala isikhathi esifushane; eminyakeni emithathu kamuva eUnited States v. Dixon, iNkantolo ilawula iGrady futhi ibuyiselwa ekuhlolweni kweBlockburger. Isifundo siwukuthi umthetho kulendawo ukhona futhi uyaqhubeka nempikiswano.

U - Ashe noSwenson (1970)

Kakade, lelicala eselixoxwe ukuthi ukuvuna i - estopel kuyingxenye yesivikelo seSichibiyelo sesihlanu esiyingozi kabili. Sivimbela uhulumeni ngokuphumelelayo ekunqandeni ummangalelwa ngezenzakalo ezixazululwe ukulahlwa kwangaphambi kokuba akhululwe, ngisho noma lelicala elisha lihlukile ngokobuchwepheshe.

Izincwadi Ezingokoqobo Zokuvikela Noshushiso Lwezigebengu

Abameli abavikelayo, ukuqonda izingozi eziphindwe kabili nemithetho ebusa ubufakazi ekuqulweni okulandelayo kubalulekile ekuvikeleni amakhasimende ekuthatheni izikhalo eziza kuqala. Uma ikhasimende likhululiwe, ukuzivikela kufanele kuqashelwe noma yimuphi umzamo kazwelokuphakamisa izindaba ezifanayo ngomongo omusha. Uma icala liphela ngokuphambana noma liphendulwa ngokudluliswa kwesicelo, iseluleko kumelwe sihlole ngokucophelela ukuthi iziphi izimpawu ezingakhishwa ngaphansi kwezimiso eziyingozi eziphindwe kabili noma imithetho esobala. Imfundiso yokuvimbela ukumiswa kwe-evolutel estoppemple ingaba ithuluzi elinamandla lokuvimbela ukuvunywa kwamaqiniso anqunyiwe kakade emseni wommangalelwa.

Kubashushisi, lemithetho idinga ukukhokhiswa ngokucophelela izinqumo. Ukuletha amacala ahlukene ekuqulweni okuhlukene okungaphazamisani nomonakalo ophindiwe kungaholela ekuxoshweni nasekusanzweni kwemithombo. Ukuqonda ukuhlolwa kweBlockburger kanye nemfundiso ehlukile kuvumela abashushisi ukuba bahlele amacala ngendlela efanele. Ngaphezu kwalokho, lapho besebenzisa ubufakazi becala langaphambili, abashushisi kumelwe baqinisekise ukuthi bavumelana nemithetho esobala futhi bagweme “ukungagwenywa kwecala lobufakazi bokuziphatha okungakhokhwakhwa abahluleli.

Isiphetho: Ukulinganisela Izidingo Zokulunga, Zokugcina, Nezokuqulwa Kwecala

Imithetho ehambisana nengozi ephindwe kabili nokusetshenziswa kobufakazi ekulingweni okulandelayo ibonisa ukulinganisela okubucayi. Kwesinye isandla, isilinganiso esiphindwe kabili sengozi sivikela izakhamuzi emandleni acindezelayo kahulumeni, siqinisekisa ukuthi ukulahlwa noma ukuqiniseka kuhlala kuphelele ngempela. Ngakolunye uhlangothi, kuhlukile okungokomthetho njengemfundiso engokomthetho ehlangene, ukuqulwa ngemva kokungaqondi kahle, nokusetshenziswa kobufakazi ekulingweni kwangaphambili, kuvumela umbuso ukuba uphishekele ubulungisa ngaphandle kokungaphathi kahle.

Ukumisa lendawo eyinkimbinkimbi kudinga ukuqondwa okuqinile komthetho-mthetho, izimpawu zeNkantolo Ephakeme, nemithetho elandelwayo elawula ubufakazi. Ochwepheshe bomthetho kumelwe bahlale bekhona ngencazelo eguquguqukayo, njengoba izinkantolo ziqhubeka zichaza imingcele yalokho okubumba “lobu cala” kanye nobufakazi obungase bubuyiselwe. Kulabo abanesithakazelo ekuhloleni ngokujulile, imithombo evela e- Cornell Information [ ne-[FLT:] Consitutious Antogit [[FLT]]] ne-[FLT] inikeza isiqondiso esigunyazayo.

Ekugcineni, umgomo uwukunikeza ubulungisa ngokulinganayo, qhamisa ummangalelwa ekumangalweni ngokuphindaphindiwe kuyilapho eqinisekisa ukuthi onecala akaphunyuki ekulandiseni ngezindlela zokugwema ezingokwesiko. Icala eliphindiwe, kanye nemithetho ehlelwe ngokucophelela, lisebenza njengesisekelo sobulungisa bobugebengu emphakathini wentando yeningi.