Ukuqonda I - “Reoply ” Engundatshaneni Kabili Ka - Claus Emkhakheni Wezikhangiso Nezinkulumo Eziwuchungechunge

I-Repall Jeoparde Claus ingenye yesivikelo esibaluleke kakhulu esibekwe eMthethweni-sisekelo we-United States. Itholakala phakathi kweSichibiyelo sesihlanu, imemezela ukuthi akekho umuntu ozothi "atholwe isigwebo esifanayo ukuze abekwe engozini ephindwe kabili yokuphila noma isitho sobuso." Lokhu kuvikela kuvimbela uhulumeni ukuba angamfaki phansi ummangalelwa ngokummangalela okuphindaphindiwe ngenxa yokumangalelwa okufanayo okushiwo ukuthi akulungile. Nokho, isicelo sombhalo siba yinkimbinkimbi kakhulu uma sihlolwa nge-lensti yezicelo nangezingxoxo.

Umsuka Womlando Nenjongo Yokuvikelwa Okukabili Kwengozi

Umqondo wengozi ephindwe kabili usukela emuva ezimisweni zomthetho wasendulo wamaRoma nasesiNgisi, kodwa isimo sawo sanamuhla e-United States saqiniswa ngeSichibiyelo sesihlanu. OFata Abasungulwayo babeqapha uhulumeni ngokuphamba, bethatha izenzakalo zesiNgisi lapho uHulumeni ayengaqunga abantu ngokuphindaphindiwe ngenxa yobugebengu obufanayo kuze kube yilapho isiqinisekiso sitholakele. Ngaleyondlela isigqebhezana sifeza izinjongo eziningi: silondoloza isahlulelo sokugcina, sivikela abamangalelwa ekucindezelekeni nasekuncipheni kwemiza ngokuphindwa kaningi, futhi sivimbela uhulumeni ukuba usebenzise imithombo yawo emikhulu ukuze ufinyelele umphumela ofunekayo ngokudonsa.

Ngokwencazelo yomthetho-sisekelo, i-Bible Jeopardy Claus isebenza kuzo zombili izinkantolo zikahulumeni nohulumeni ngemfundiso efakiwe Bhenton v. Maryland (11969]. Lokhu kusho ukuthi alikho izinga likahulumeni elingabangela umuntu ukuba afake izingozi eziphindwe kabili ngenxa yecala elifanayo. Icala lesigebengu libopha isiphakamiso sesibili ngemva kokulahlwa icala, ngemva kokuqiniseka, futhi ezimweni ezithile ngemva kwecala elingafanele. Ibuye yenqabela izijeziso eziningi ngenxa yecala elifanayo ngaphandle kokuba ihlose izijeziso ngokucacile ngenxa yecala eliyeleleneyo.

Lapho I - jeopardy Inamathiselwe: Isihluthulelo Somngcele

Umbuzo wokuqala obucayi kunoma yikuphi ukuhlaziya okuphindiwe yilena: uma izingozi zikhona ngempela "ukufaka"? Impendulo iyahlukahluka ngokomongo we-procedical. Ekuqulweni kwejaji, ingozi ixhumene uma ijaji libekwa endaweni ekanye futhi lifungwe ngesithembiso. Ekuqulweni kwebhentshi, ingozi inamathela lapho ufakazi wokuqala efunwe. Ukunxusa okunecala ku-""u-"ufaka izicelo"?"ukuvuma ngecala uma inkantolo ivuma ngesihle. Lendaba ngenxa yokuthi lapho isengozini ikhona, ummangalelwa unesibambiso somthetho uphinde avikelwe icala elifanayo, isithimbelo esilinganiselwe.

Ukuqonda leli phuzu lokunamathela kubaluleke kakhulu ezingxoxweni ezikhona. Ake sithi ummangalelwa uyavuma ukumangalela icala, kodwa ngaphambi kokuba inkantolo yamukele isicelo, umshushisi uzama ukuhoxa isicelo. Njengoba ingozi ingakahlanganisiwe, umshushisi angakwazi ukubukeza icala noma ngisho nokuqulwa kwecala emacaleni okuqala. Nokho, uma ijaji selisamukela isicelo futhi lifake isiqinisekiso, izingozi, futhi ummangalelwa akanakubuyiselwa kulelocala elifanayo, ngisho noma isigwebo sesingabekwa eceleni kamuva.

I - Plea Ilwa Namalungelo Akabili Ayingozi

Izenzo − noma isinxephezelo somthetho − ziwukuvumelana phakathi kommangalelwa nokuzivikela lapho evuma khona ukumangalela icala eliphansi noma ukumangalelwa ngokukhethekile ngenxa yokuvunyelwa njengomusho oncishisiwe, ukuxoshwa kwezinye izigwebo, noma ukugunyazwa. Lokhu kuxazulula amacala alinganiselwa ku-95% e-grands e-United States. Uma ummangalelwa evuma ukuthi unecala futhi evuma ngokuzithandela, uvala iSimemezelo sawo sesihlanu ngokumelene nokuzibeka icala, iSichibiyelo sabo sesithupha ekuqulweni kwejaji, futhi ngokubaluleke kakhulu, isivikelo sabo esiphindwe kabili ngokuphathelene necala abamangalela kulo.

Lomkhohlisi akasho lutho. U-Repall Jeoparde uvikela ummangalelwa ukuba angaphinde abekwe icala elifanayo ngemva kokuba isicelo esinecala singene futhi samukelwe. Ngokwesibonelo, uma ummangalelwa enxusa icala ukuba ahlasele kodwa kamuva uhulumeni uzama ukummangalela ngokungenye indlela (njengokuhlasela okusheshisiwe okusekelwe ekuziphatheni okufanayo), ukuthi ukumangalela kwesibili kungalimaza ngokuphindwe kabili ngaphandle kokuba ukumangalelwa kuhlanganisa izici ezihlukene ngempela noma isigwebo esihloselwe isijeziso esihlukile. Isihluthulelo siwukuthi isihluthulelo ngokwaso sinquma ingozi yecala elikhethekile elibekwe isivumelwano.

Ukuquliswa Kwecala Nokubhekana Nezimo

Enye indawo ekhathazayo iphakama lapho abashushisi bezama ukuhlanganisa "umshushisi wezingozi eziphindwe kabili" izigaba zezivumelwano ezidlulisa icala eliqulweyo. Ezinye izivumelwano zifuna ukuba abamangalelwa balahle amalungelo abo aphindwe kabili ezindaweni ezingahlobene nezindaba ezilandelayo, ukuqhuba ukuthi izinkantolo zivele zalahlwa. INkantolo Ephakeme ikwenze kwacaca ukuthi ummangalelwa akanakuphoqelelwa ukuba avikelwe ekuvikelweni okungokomthetho njengengxenye yesicelo ngendlela ebanzi. EUnited States v. Meznatto [195], iNkanto esekela ukugcinwa kwemithetho ethile i-odwa kwe-odwa, njengoba nje esazi neyo ngokuzithandela, kodwa enganikeziphathi i-artrestivesss. [FLT]

Esinye isici esiyingozi kulapho isikhankaso sesicelo sihlelwa ukuze uhulumeni afune ukuqiniseka ngesilinganiso esisodwa kuyilapho egcina ilungelo lokumangalela amanye amacala ahlobene kamuva. Izinkantolo zihlaziya izimo ezinjalo ngaphansi "izici ezifanayo" ezihlolwayo ku- shatburger v. iUnited States [1932]). Uma ukumenywa kwesibili kufuna ubufakazi obuthi okungenani iphuzu elilodwa lokungamangalelwa, khona - ke amacala athathwa njengahlukene, futhi izingozi eziphindwe kabili azinanisi icala elilandelayo. Nokho, uma ukuziphatha okufanayo kujeziswa ngaphansi kwemithetho emibili ehlanganisa izici ezimbili ezifanayo, ukuqulwa kokwesibili kuyalahlwa. Abameli kumelwe bahlole ngokucophelela ukubhalwa kwezivumelwano zokuqinisekisa ukuthi abaxhasi babo abakhokhishelwayo abangazi lutho oluhambisana necala elifanayo.

Icala Eliwuphawu Lokuchaza Izindlela Ezimbaxambili Zokucabanga Nezinso

Izinqumo eziningi zeNkantolo Ephakeme ziye zachaza ukuhlangana kwecala eliqinile lengozi kanye nokunxusa. Kunonyaka kaNorth Carolina v. Paarce [1969], iNkantolo yathi iMibili Jeopardy Claus yenqabela umahluleli ukuba abeke isigwebo esiqinile ngemva kokudlulisa ukudlulisa isikhalo esiphumelelayo nokulungisa ngaphandle kokuvuma izizathu zokuthethelela ukwanda. [[FLT][FLT] [FLT] [FLT:] [FLT] [FLT] [12] wakhuluma ngeposi-orcerce [12] izicelo kunezigqizo, wamisa isimiso sokulunga esidlulisa ukunxusa kwezicelo ezingokomthetho: uhulumeni ngeke usebenzise usongo lwezinsolo oluqinile ekujekelweni okungokomthetho ngenxa yokuviswa kwecala. Lokhu kwagcizelelwa kumthetho oqinile. [FT] [Freglectivery] [4] Inkantolo ethola isigwebo esiqinile ngemva esiqinile, lapho umshushiciso ebekwe

ku-United States v. Dinitz [1997], iNkantolo yalungisa izingozi eziphindwe kabili emongweni wezomthetho ezingalungile(isimo esingaphakama phakathi nengxoxo yokuncenga uma ummangalelwa ethi umshushisi uthatha isinyathelo esingafanele ngokuphoqelela ukuba anqume ngephutha ngemva kwesivumelwano. Inkantolo yachaza ukuthi inkantolo ivunyelwe uma ummangalelwa evuma ukucushwa noma uma "isidingo esikhulu" sidingeka, kodwa uma umshushisi ngamabomu esho ngephutha ukuthola umphumela ongcono ngokwengeziwe, ukugweba okuphindiwe kabili. Lokhu kubonisa ukubaluleka komshushisi wobuqotho phakathi nenqubo yokunxusa.

Icala lamuva kakhulu, Ohio v. Johnson [19984], ehilela ukunxusa ngokuqondile. Ummangalelwa wamangalelwa ngamacala amane, kuhlanganise nokubulala nokubulala. Wavuma ukumangalela amacala amancane kakhulu ngokuncintisana nokuxoshwa kwabakhulu, kodwa umshushisi wenqaba. Inkantolo yamacala yavumela ummangalelwa ukuba avume icala elinecala elingaphansi ngenxa yecala likahulumeni. INkantolo Ephakeme yathi lokhu kuphula ikhono lokukhokha lika-Jeopardy Claus ngoba umbuso wawungavumelani nakancane ukuvuma ukukhonzwa kokukhonzwa, futhi ummangalelwa wayengenakukhetha ngokungenamdlangazelele ukunquma ingxenye yecala lapho kuqulwa icala elisele. Lokhu kubonisa ukuthi ukuvikelwa kwezindlela eziphindwe kabili zombili ezingenzakalayo: imfanelo yokukhetha imfanelo yokukhokhwazwana futhi amacala abhekene imvume engokomthetho.

Imfundiso Yokubusa Okuhlangene: Imfundiso Enkulu Eyingqayizivele

Mhlawumbe ukulinganiselwa okubaluleke kakhulu kwesivikelo esiphindiwe sezingozi ezimbili ezidilizwayo kuhlanganisa imfundiso ehlangene yobukhosi. Ngenxa yokuthi isigqebhezana seSichibiyelo sesihlanu sisebenza kuhulumeni ngamunye ngokwehlukana, ummangalelwa angaquliswa yikho kokubili uhulumeni nohulumeni womthetho wobugebengu obufanayo uma lokho kuwephula imithetho yabo bobabili abalawuli. Lesi simiso saqinisekiswa Heath v. Alabama [1985], lapho iNkantolo isithi izikhulu ezimbili ezihlukene zingamangalela ummangalelwa ngamunye ngokubulala okungaphazanyiswanga okuphindwe kabili.

Emkhankasweni wezingxoxo zokuncenga, lokhu kusho ukuthi ummangalelwa omangalela icala ngecala likahulumeni ngesenzo esithile angase amangalelwe uhulumeni ngesenzo esifanayo, futhi amangalelwe ngokuphambene. Ezinye izivumelwano zikhuluma ngokucacile ngalokhu nokwenzeka ngokuhlanganisa "ukukhululwa kwembulunga yonke" umsuka, lapho umbusi evuma ukungabhekisi icala komunye. Nokho, iziphakamiso ezinjalo azidingeki ngokwemithetho engokomthetho. Ngakho - ke iseluleko sezesivikelo kumelwe siqondise abathengi ukuthi ukusebenzelana nesicelo kwelinye isifunda akuwavikeli ngokuzenzakalela ekumangalelweni kwelinye izwe [1] Ngisho noma ukuziphatha kufana. Lokhu kungabangela ukuba kube nzima ukunxusa, njengoba abamangalelwa bangafuna ukuxazulula zonke izici zecala ezingenzeka enqubweni eyodwa, okungase kungangenzeki ngenxa yokubambisana kwe-dictriactrial.

Izinkinga Eziwusizo Zokulwisana Nezifo Ezibangelwa Ukungezwani Nezifo

Kubameli abavikelayo, ukuqonda izimpawu zomonakalo ophindwe kabili kubucayi lapho beluleka amakhasimende ukuthi angasamukela yini isicelo. Izizathu eziyinhloko zihlanganisa:

  • Seketha amacala amabili. Uma uhulumeni ephikelela ukugcina amacala athile ehlukene kodwa ehlobene, hlola ukuthi lawomacala afana yini nomthetho ngaphansi we-hatburger[. Uma kunjalo, isikhalo kuwenye ingabekwa inkantolo kamuva, ngaphandle kwemikhombano evikelayo.
  • Ulimi olulula. Izivumelwano eziningi zihlanganisa amalungiselelo okubilisa i-birples lapho ummangalelwa elahla khona ilungelo lokudlulisa izicelo kanye "zonke" lezingozi eziphindwe kabili. Izinkantolo ngokuvamile ziphoqelela ukupha abantu abanjalo uma bazi futhi bezimisele, kodwa umphikisi obanzi kakhulu noma ongaqondakali angabekelwa inselele. I-athoney kufanele idlulise izikhalo ezilinganiselwe kuphela ezixazululiwe.
  • Cwangcisa isikhathi sesicelo. Ummangalelwa akanakusebenzisa isicelo esinecala kwelinye icala ukuvimbela umbuso ekuzameni elinye icala elivela kwesinye isenzakalo kodwa elisobala. Ngokwesibonelo, isicelo sokuphanga asimvikeli ummangalelwa ekumangalelweni okuhlukene kokuhlasela okuye kwabangelwa ukuphamba uma ukuhlasela kuhilela izigebengu ezihlukene. Isiqinisekiso sokuziphatha esisikwe yisikhalazo sibalulekile.
  • Yazi ukuthuthukisa isigwebo. Ukunxusa okunecala akukunqabeli ukusetshenziswa kokuziphatha okufanayo ukuthuthukisa umlandu kamuva, ongafani. Isibonelo, ukukholelwa kokuqala (okusekelwe ngokunxusa) kungasetshenziselwa ukuthuthukisa imisho ngaphansi kwemithetho ephindiwe ngaphandle kokukhipha izingozi eziphindwe kabili, njengoba ukuthuthukisa kungelona isijeziso esihlukile sobubi bangaphambili.

Abashushisi futhi banezizathu ezisebenzayo zokucabangela izingozi eziphindwe kabili lapho kwenziwa isicelo. Ukuxoxisana ngonya okukhulu ukuthi imizamo yokugwema i-partinang `njengokushushumbisa izikhalo ezihlaliswayo' ukuze kukhishwe isikhalazo sembulunga yonke esinecala("sokuphula inqubo efanele noma kuholele ekushintsheni ekudluliseni isikhalo. Uhulumeni kufanele uqinisekise ukuthi noma isiphi isikhalo esibekwe ngemva kwesikhalo sisekelwe ekuziphatheni okusha kwangempela noma ezicini ezihlukene zomthetho, hhayi nje esifinyele ukuba kuthathwe indaba efanayo ngaphansi kwegama elihlukile.

Ukucabangela Okunengqondo Ekuxoxeni

Kokubili ukuvikela nokushushisa kufanele kube nemingcele engokokuziphatha. INhlangano yaseMelika ye-Model Rules of Professional Pening ifuna ukuba abashushisi bangasebenzisi amasu emithetho ukuze bafake izicelo ezinecala, kuhlanganise nezinsongo zokumangalelwa okungamelwe kubekwe ngokomthetho. Umshushisi, ngemva kokucela ukuwa, uphindisela ngokumangalela ummangalelwa ngecala elikhulu kakhulu ngaphandle kwesisekelo esihle sokholo, ngezinye izikhathi angase aphambuke inqubo efanele futhi, kwezinye izimo, amaphutha amaReopard Claus Claus engeziwe uma akhona ngaphansi kwecala eliye lalahlwayo.

Ohlangothini lwesivikelo, abameli kumelwe bachaze ngokugcwele imiphumela yokunxusa okunecala emalungelweni amabili esikhathi esizayo. Ikhasimende elikholelwa ukuthi lokhu kuyoqeda wonke umthwalo wengozi wesenzakalo esithile lingase lishaqeke ukwazi ukuthi umbusi ohlukile noma icala elihlukile elisekelwe emaqinisweni afanayo lihlale livulekile. Ukungaqondi okunjalo kungaholela ekufuneni ukungawenzi kahle umsebenzi noma ekunikezeni iseluleko okungasizi. Ngakho, ukuveza kahle nokweluleka okubhaliwe kuyatuswa kakhulu.

Izimpikiswano Zemithetho Neziqondiso Zesikhathi Esizayo

Ukuhlangana kwezingozi eziphindwe kabili nezinxephezelo akunampikiswano. Ezinye izazi ezingokomthetho ziphikisa ngokuthi ukuncika okukhulu ekucelweni kuye kwabangela ukuba izikhungo ze-Rebible Jeopardy Clause zincishiswe isivikelo se-Victive Jeopardy Claus, ngoba abamangalelwa bawachitha njalo lawomalungelo ngenxa yokungezwani. Imfundiso yokuwamukela ngokusemthethweni, nakuba idingekile, ingavumela abashushisi ukuba "bafake inqwaba yemicikilisho"", bese befaka iziphakatho eziningi ezithathelwa indawo ukuze bafake izicelo.

Abanye bagomela ngokuthi isisho sihlala siqinile ngoba izinkantolo zisalawula imingcele yabahluphi futhi zifuna ukuba noma iliphi icala elilandelayo lihlanganise amacala ahlukene ngempela. Ukuhlolwa komdwebo kunikeza indinganiso esebenzayo, nakuba ukusebenza kwayo kungaba yize ngokomthetho. Imithetho futhi ifeza indima ngokuchaza ubugebengu ngezici ezicacile zokunciphisa ukuphindwa. Uma kubhekiselwa phambili, kuye kwahlolelwa ukuhlanganisa "isikhwama esiphelele" umthetho ozofaka isigwebo esilandelanayo esihambisana nanoma isiphi isenzakalo sobugebengu, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi ithuluzi elikhombayo. Lokhu kungaguqula ukunxusa okunamandla kodwa kungathola ukusekela okukhulu kwezombangazwe.

Phakathi naleso sikhathi, ukuphakama kwamandla esizwe sikahulumeni kanye nokubusa okuhlangene kuye kwenza ukubusa okubili kwaba yimpikiswano eqhubekayo. Abanye abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi ukunqatshelwa kobukhosi okumbaxambili kufanele kuphinde kuthathwe, ikakhulukazi emongweni wokuboshwa kwenqwaba yabantu kanye nezici ezingenakulinganiswa emiphakathini engaphansi. INkantolo Ephakeme ngezinye izikhathi iye yabonisa ukuvuleka kwenkululeko yokuphinde i-imfundiso, kodwa okwamanje, isengumthetho omisiwe. Ngakho abameli kumelwe bahlanganise ukuhlolwa kwezingozi zobukhosi kunoma isiphi isikhalazo esihilela ukuziphatha okune.

Isiphetho: Ukuzifaka Engcupheni Embaxa - mbili Ngokunakekela

I-Repall Jeoparde Claus ilokhu iyisisekelo senqubo yobugebengu baseMelika, inikeza i-cheke edingekile emandleni abamangalelwa futhi iqinisekise ukuthi isiphetho sawo silungile. Uma abamangalelwa bekhetha ukuxazulula amacala abo ngokufaka iziphakamiso, bawachitha ngokuzithandela amalungelo abo ecaleni futhi, kule nqubo, balinganisela izingozi ezithile eziphindwe kabili zecala elithile elisikwe ngesivumelwano. Nokho, lomthetho-sisekelo usanqabela uhulumeni ukuba ungamdingi ummangalelwa icala elifanayo ngemva kokunxusa okusemthethweni, futhi ngokuqaphamisa izinkantolo zihlole izivumelwano ukuze ziqinisekise ukuthi azisetshenziswa njengezimoto zokuziphindisela noma ukuvala isimiso somthetho.

Kudokotela abangokomthetho, isihluthulelo siwukuthi ukunxusa okungako konke kumelwe kwaziswe ngokuhlolisisa ukumangalelwa, ukuziphatha okukukho, kanye nokwazi ukuqulwa kwamacala okulandela. Abameli bamabutho kumelwe baqaphele ukuba bangawahluli kakhulu ama-rand nezingozi zobukhosi ezifihliwe, kuyilapho abashushisi kumelwe bahloniphe imingcele yomthetho-sisekelo echaza izinqumo ezivumelekile. Ekugcineni, ukuqonda i-Refect Reopardy Claus emongosini yezicelo kuvumela wonke amaqembu ukuba angene ngokucacile, aqinisekise ukuthi ukwahlulela kusebenza ngaphandle kokudela isiqinisekiso esiyisisekelo seSiphendulo sesihlanu.

Ukuze ufunde ngokwengeziwe, hlola Constitution Center yeSiphakamiso sesihlanu esibonisanayo [, [[FLT:] Cornell Information Institute’s remotement compression , kanye ne [[FLT:]U.S.U.U.M. weSishaya-mthetho wengxenye yezivumelwano zesivumelwano sobulungisa [[FLT]