Isimiso senkantolo kahulumeni e-United States sinjengensika eyisisekelo yentando yeningi yaseMelika, enomthwalo wokuchaza imithetho, ukuxazulula izingxabano, nokuvikela amalungelo omthetho-mthetho. Enkabeni yalesi simiso abahluleli nabahluleli abaphatha amacala, benze izinqumo ezingokomthetho ezigxekayo, futhi balungise izakhiwo ezingokomthetho zesizwe. Abafundi nabafundisi, bazuza ukuqonda okujulile ngendlela ikomiti yomthetho yesizwe esebenza ngayo nendima ehlukile yamalungu ayo ekufundeni komphakathi nokuthembisana. Lesi sihloko sinikeza ukuqashelwa kwesimiso senkantolo, imithwalo yemfanelo yabahluleli, inqubo yokumisa, nemiphumela ejulile yesinqumo somthetho emphakathini.

Isakhiwo Esinemikhumbi Ethathu SeSikhungo Se - Federal

Isimiso senkantolo kahulumeni sihlelwe saba amazinga amathathu ayinhloko, ngalinye elinemisebenzi ekhethekile nezindawo ezimisiweyo. Lesi sakhiwo sezikhulu siqinisekisa ukuthi izimpikiswano zomthetho zisingathwa ngokunempumelelo nokuthi ukubukezwa kwemithetho kukhona ukuze kulungiswe amaphutha nokucaciswe izimiso ezingokomthetho. Izinhlalo ezintathu yiziNkantolo zeSigodi sase-U.S. (izinga lokwahlulela), izinkantolo ze-U.S. zomkhandlu zokudlulisa izigwebo (izinga le-asembule), kanye neNkantolo ePhakathi ephakeme ye-United States (inkantolo ephakeme kakhulu). Ukuqonda indima ehlukile yezinga ngalinye eyisihluthulelo sokuqonda indlela ubulungisa obusetshenziswa ngayo ezingeni likahulumeni.

Izinkantolo Zesigodi ZaseU.S.: Izinga Lokuqulwa Kwecala

Izinkantolo zesigodi ziyizinkantolo zezenkantolo zezenkantolo yezwe zesimiso sikahulumeni. Zisingatha izinhlu zecala eziningi, kuhlanganise kokubili izindaba zomphakathi nezezezigebengu. Isifunda ngasinye sinecala elilodwa lesigodi, futhi izifunda ezinkulu zingaba nezigodi eziningi (ngokwesibonelo, iCalifornia zinezine: iNyakatho, iMpumalanga, iPhakathi, neNingizimu). Kunezifunda ezingu-99 zezomthetho kahulumeni kulo lonke elase-United States nasemasimini alo. Izinkantolo zesifunda zinegunya lokuqala, okusho ukuthi zingowokuqala ukuqulwa. Icala enkantolo yesifunda linganqunywe yijaji (ijaji) noma ijaji lodwa (inkantolo yezesibhiyodwa).

Abahluleli ezinkantolo zesigodi banomthwalo wemfanelo wokwengamela zonke izigaba zecala, kusukela ezinqubweni zangaphambi kwenkantolo nobufakazi obubusayo kuya eziyalweni zokwahlulela nokugweba. Babuye bakhiphe izinqumo ekuqulweni kwecala lasebhentshi, bahlole ukungaqiniseki kobufakazi, futhi baqinisekise ukuthi amacala aqhutshwa ngokulunga. Abahluleli besifunda bamiswe uMongameli futhi baqinisekiswe iSigele, ngaphansi kweSishaya-mthetho III soMthetho-sisekelo. Basizwa abahluleli bamajaji, abasingatha izindaba zokuqala nezokuqulwa kwangaphambi kwenkundla, nabahluleli abakhohliwe, abamele imicimbi ewile, abamele ukuwa kwecala lezezimali. Izinqumo zesifunda zingadluliswa enkantolo yesifunda efanelekile yezezimali.

Izinkantolo Zokudlulisa Amacala Zase - United States: Izinga Lokuphangwa

IZinkantolo ze-U.S. eziyi-13 zezokudlulisa izinqumo zesifunda (ezibizwa nangokuthi izinkantolo zesifunda) zibukeza izinqumo ezenziwa izinkantolo zesifunda ezifundeni zazo. Ngokungafani nezinkantolo zesifunda, izinkantolo zesifunda, azisiphathi amacala noma zizwe ubufakazi obusha. Kunalokho, zihlola ukuthi umthetho wasetshenziswa ngokunembile yini ezinkantolo eziphansi. Amacala azwakala ngokusemthethweni eqenjini labahluleli abathathu besifunda, nakuba ezimweni ezingavamile inkantolo egcwele ingase izwe icala enc. Amajaji bebuke irekhodi lenkantolo yokuqulwa kwecala, bafunde izikhalo ezibhalwe ngakuzo zombili, futhi balalele izimpikiswano zomlomo. Khona - ke bakhipha umbono obhaliwe wokuthi noma yiziphi izinkantolo, ibuye iphendule, noma ikhiphe isinqumo senkantolo yesifunda.

Abahluleli besifunda bafeza indima ebalulekile ekuthuthukiseni inqubo engokomthetho. Izinqumo zabo zibopha kuzo zonke izinkantolo zesifunda ngaphakathi kwesifunda futhi zinegunya elikholisayo kwezinye izifunda. Lokhu kwakha umthetho wecala oqondisa izinkantolo eziphansi futhi usiza ekuqinisekiseni ukusebenza komthetho kahulumeni. Abahluleli besifunda futhi bezwa izikhalo ezivela ezinhlanganweni ezithile zezombuso, njenge-Seceturaties and Exchange Commission ne-National Labor Relations Board. I-United States ihlukaniswa ngezifunda ezinezinombolo eziyi-11, kuhlanganise ne-D.C. Izifunda-zifunda ne-Frederayodwa, eziphethe izikhundla ze-Oversimentel, ezisesabelweni ezikhethekile njengomthetho we-Oversastern and tracement.

INkantolo Ephakeme Yase - United States

INkantolo Ephakeme iyinkantolo ephakeme kakhulu ezweni, ehlanganisa amajaji angu-9: iJaji elilodwa eliyinhloko namaJaji ayisishiyagalombili ahlangene. INkantolo inegunya lokunquma ngokuphelele kuzo zonke izimpikiswano zikahulumeni nombuso ezihilela ukubuzwa kukahulumeni, kuhlanganise nokuchazwa koMthetho-sisekelo nomthetho kahulumeni. Futhi inegunya lokuqala enqubeni elinganiselwe, enjengamacala aphikisana phakathi kwemibuso. INkantolo Ephakeme ikhetha ukuthi yimaphi amacala okumelwe ezwe ngokunikeza imvume yamajaji e-ceritari, okudinga isivumelwano sabahluleli abane (umthetho wemine). Unyaka ngamunye, iNkantolo ithola izinkulungwane zezicelo kodwa izwa amacala acishe angu-70-80 kuphela.

Izinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme ziwukugcina futhi zibopha kuzo zonke izinkantolo eziphansi. Isinqumo sayo singaba nemiphumela ebanzi emphakathini waseMelika, sishintshe izindinganiso zomthetho, sivikele amalungelo omphakathi, futhi silolonge inqubo yomphakathi. UMahluleli Omkhulu uqondisa izimpikiswano zomlomo nemihlangano yangasese futhi unomthwalo wemfanelo wokwabela ukubhalwa kwemibono eminingi lapho esezinhlanganweni eziningi. Hlanganisa amaJaji ngalinye lihlanganyela amandla okuvota. INkantolo isebenza entweni eqala ngo-October futhi iphela ngoJune noma ngoJuly, ngokukhulula imibono. Isakhiwo seNkantolo Ephakeme eWashington, D.C., sisebenza njengophawu olungokoqobo lwegunya legatsha lokwahlulela nozimele.

Izindima Ezihlukile ZabAhluleli Abamazwe Nokwahlulela Okumahluleli

Nakuba "ukwahlulela" no "bulungisa" kuvame ukusetshenziswa ngokufanayo engxoxweni evamile, zisho izikhundla ezithile phakathi kwejaji likahulumeni ezinemithwalo yemfanelo ehlukile, ukumiswa, nezinga eliphezulu. Ukuqonda lokhu kungafani kusiza ekucaciseni indlela isimiso sokwahlulela esisebenza ngayo ngesilinganiso ngasinye.

AbaHluleli AbawuFederayo: Imisebenzi, Ukukhethwa, Ne - Tenure

Igama elithi "umhluleli wezezimali" ngokuvamile libhekisela kumajaji eSiphakamiso III amiswe ezinkantolo zezinkantolo zesifunda nasezinkantolo zezikhalo, kanye namajaji ezinkantolo ezikhethekile njengeNkantolo ye-International Trade neNkantolo ye-Federal. ISiphakamiso III sisebenza phakathi "nokuziphatha okuhle," injongo yokuba nokuphila, futhi amaholo abo angeke ancishiswe lapho esehhovisi. Lesivikelo sihloselwe ukubavikela ekucindezeleni kwezombangazwe futhi siqinisekise inkululeko yokwahlulela.

Abahluleli besigodi baqondisa ukuqulwa kwecala, baphatha izikhungo zabo, banqumele abamangalelwa ngecala lobugebengu, futhi bakhiphe izigwebo. Abahluleli besifunda babukeza amacala ngokudluliswa kwecala, babhale imibono, futhi bamise iziqondiso ezingokomthetho. Bobabili abahluleli bezifunda nezigodi basingatha izicelo eziphuthumayo, njengezicelo zokuhlala bebulawa noma imiyalo, ngokuvamile ngesisekelo esishintshashintshayo. Ngaphezu kweSiphakamiso III, kunabahluleli nabahluleli ababoshelwe ngokuwiswa ngecala abasebenza ngemibandela emisiwe futhi bamiswe imikhandlu yenkantolo yezehlulelo noma izinkantolo zesifunda. Indima yabo ibalulekile ekusebenzeni kahle kwezinkantolo zikahulumeni kodwa abaphathi inqubo efanayo yokuphila okuyishumi noma ukuqinisekiswa.

Amajaji ENkantolo Ephakeme: Imithwalo Yemfanelo Eyingqayizivele

Amajaji eNkantolo ePhakeme kakhulu nawo futhi amajaji angokwahlulelwa, kodwa indima yawo ihlukile kokubili ezindinganisweni nasethonyeni. Nakuba amajaji asenkantolo ephansi esebenzisa umthetho okhona emacaleni ngamanye, abahluleli bavame ukuxabana nemibuzo eyisisekelo engokomthetho-sisekelo engawashintsha ngokomthetho waso sonke isizwe. Isibopho sabo esiyinhloko siwukuchaza uMthetho-sisekelo, ukuqinisekisa ukuthi imithetho nezenzo zokuphatha kuvumelana namalungiselelo awo. Amajaji acelwa ukuba axazulule izindaba eziphikisana kakhulu njengamandla ombuso, inkululeko, nemingcele ephakathi kwamagatsha kahulumeni.

Ijaji ngalinye libhala imibono emacala abekwa nguMahluleli oMkhulu (noma umsizi omkhulu wabaningi uma uMahluleli oMkhulu engavumelani). Ukuthatha nokuphikisa imibono kufeza indima ebalulekile ekulolongeni inkulumo engokomthetho futhi ngezinye izikhathi kubeka isisekelo sezinguquko zesikhathi esizayo emthethweni. Amajaji futhi aqondisa imisebenzi yeNkantolo yangaphakathi, anquma ukuthi yimaphi amacala okumelwe ezwe, futhi ahlanganyele ekudluliseni obala nasemfuzweni. Ukumiswa kobulungisa kukho konke ukuphila kuyabavumela ukuba bathathe umbono omude womthetho, owenziwe ngemijikelezo yezelelwa.

Ukuqhathaniswa: Abahluleli baphikisana nobulungisa

Umehluko oyinhloko phakathi "kwahluleli" no"kwahlulela" esimisweni sombuso ungowesikhundla negunya. "Ubulungisa" bugcinelwe amalungu eNkantolo Ephakeme, kuyilapho "ukwahlulela" kusebenza kubo bonke abanye abahluleli. Kwezinye izizwe, inkantolo ephakeme kakhulu ibizwa futhi ngokuthi iNkantolo Ephakeme namalungu ayo ayizahluleli, kodwa esimisweni sikahulumeni kuphela abayisishiyagalo esingu-9 e-U.S. iNkantolo Ephakeme iphethe lesosihloko. Imithwalo yamahluleli ibanzi ibanzi ngenxa yokuthi ibeka isibonelo saso sonke isizwe, kanti abahluleli besifunda bamisa isigaba kuphela esifundeni sabo.

Inqubo Yokumisa Nenkululeko Yokwahlulela

Inqubo yokukhetha amajaji namajaji kahulumeni iyisici esibucayi sesimiso sokuhlola nokulinganisela. Ihilela kokubili amagatsha aphethe ne-progional, abonisa injongo yamaFramers ukuqinisekisa ijaji elizimele kodwa elizolandisa. Indlela eya ebhentshini inzima futhi ngokuvamile ibekwa icala ngokwezombangazwe, ikakhulukazi enkantolo Ephakeme.

Ukufakwa nokuqinisekiswa

UMongameli umisa abameleli bazo zonke izikhulu zeSiphakamiso III, kuhlanganise nabahluleli benkantolo yesifunda, abahluleli besifunda, nabahluleli beNkantolo ePhakamileyo. Ukumiswa kwamagama kuthunyelwa eKhomiseni leSigele, elinamacala nevoti ukuthi lizakutusa yini i-comineegrances eSigqeni esigcwele. Uvota oluvamile eSigqebeni seSishaya iSishayamthetho uqinisekisa itshebe. Inqubo yeNkathi Ephakeme idonsela ukunakekela okukhulu kwesizwe, ngokuzwa okukhulu nokuphikisana. INhlangano ye-American Bar (ABA) inikeza i-galelo elingekho sigaba sesigaba se-omine, nakuba indima yayo ingasahluleki kakhulu eminyakeni yamuva. Ukucabangela kwezombangazwe, njengokungathathwa kwefilosofi yokwahlulela, ukubusa kwefilosofi, nokuvumelana kwemibono ephambili.

Ukuphila Okunzima Nendawo Yako Yokuhlala

ISiphakamiso III soMthetho-sisekelo sinikeza abahluleli bamazwe namajaji ukuphila phakathi "kokuziphatha okuhle" lelilungiselelo laklanyelwe ukuvikela abahluleli ekuphindiseleni kwezombangazwe futhi livumele amajaji ukuba enze izinqumo ngokusekelwe emthethweni kuphela emaqinisweni, ngaphandle kokwesaba ukulahlekelwa imisebenzi yawo. U-Alexander Hamilton waphikisa ku-[FL:0] uNo. [umthetho] ukuthi ukuphila kwakubalulekile eqenjini wejaji elizimele elingachaza umthetho ngokufanelekile futhi lisebenze njengesesha emagatsheni omthetho womthetho nakwesikhulu. Nakuba ukuphila kweshumi kukhuthaza ukuzimela, kusho ukuthi izikhala ziyenzeka ngokungasoleki futhi zingaba nemiphumela emini eqekelweni yezinkantolo.

Ukulwela Nokususa

Nakuba amajaji namajaji kahulumeni ephethe izikhundla zokuphila konke, awagonyiwe ekususweni. UMthetho-sisekelo uvumela ukuba iNdlu yabameleli ihlolwe yiSigele isho ukuthi "isizathu, ukufumbathisa, noma amanye amacala amakhulu" ukujezisa akuvamile kakhulu; amajaji angohulumeni ayishumi kuphela abekwa icala futhi abekwe icala lesishiyagalombili. Isibonelo samuva kakhulu sasiwukususwa koMahluleli weSigodi G. Thomas Portest Jr. ngo-2010 usongo lokonakala. Usongo lokungahlolwa kwemithetho lusebenza njenge-sehlolo lokuziphatha okubi kokwahlulela, nakuba kuhloselwe ukulondolozwa ngokungenamingcele.

Ukubukezwa Kokwahlulela Namacala Ayizimpawu

Elinye lamathuluzi anamandla kakhulu asetshenziswa ehunyushweni i- i-judicial mentation [. Igunya lokumemezela imithetho nezenzo zokuqondisa ngaphandle komthetho-mthetho. Lo mbuso, awushiwonga ngokuqondile eMthethweni, wamiswa yiNkantolo Ephakeme ecaleni lengqokohloko yezwe Marbury v. Madison[ (1803]. Kusukela ngaleso sikhathi, iNkantolo ikhiphe izinqumo eziningi eziye zaguqula ukuphila kwaseMelika.

Marbury v. Madison ne - Power of Judicial Review

kuMarbury v. Madison, uMahluleli omkhulu uJohn Marshall wabhala umbono ovumelanayo owamisa igunya leNkantolo lokuqeda izenzo zeSishaya-mthetho eziphula umthetho. Icala lavela empikiswaneni yezombangazwe ngokumiswa kobulungisa boxolo. Marshall wanquma ukuthi nakuba uWilliam Marbury ayenelungelo lokuthunywa, iNkantolo ayikwazanga ukukhipha imvume ye-mandamus ngenxa yokuthi umthetho unika amandla (i-13 le-judiciary Act ka-1789) wawungagunyazi. Lesi sinqumo samisa i-judiary njengegatsha elihlangeneyo likahulumeni nesigaba sokubukeza umthetho.

Amanye Amacala Ayinhloko Ashintsha Isizwe

Isikhulu seNkantolo Ephakeme sihlanganisa amacala aphendula imibuzo eyisisekelo yamalungelo omphakathi, amandla kahulumeni, kanye nenkululeko yomuntu siqu. Ezinye zezinqumo ezinethonya elikhulu zihlanganisa:

  • Brown v. Board of Education (1954) – imithetho kahulumeni emenyezelwe emisa izikole zomphakathi ezihlukene zabafundi abansundu nabamhlophe abangavumelani nomthetho, igumbuqela ngokuphumelelayo "ehlukeneyo kodwa elinganayo" nokuthuthukisa inhlangano yamalungelo omphakathi.
  • Roe v. Ukuqamba [1903]) – kwaqashelwa ilungelo lomthetho-sisekelo lokukhipha isisu, kubhebhethekiswa izimpikiswano eziqhubekayo ezingokomthetho nezezombangazwe mayelana namalungelo okuzala.
  • Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) – Iphawule ukuthi uMthetho-sisekelo uqinisekisa imibhangqwana elinganayo enelungelo lokushada, unikeza isivikelo esilinganayo ngaphansi komthetho.
  • McCulloch v. Maryland (11819) – I-Afrect ukuphakama kukahulumeni phezu kwemithetho kahulumeni futhi isekele ukuqina komthetho-sisekelo weBank yesibini yase-United States, imisa amandla aqondeneyo eSishaya-Mkhandlwini.
  • [[NT.:0] Miranda v. Arizona (1966) – i-active jouled joints zomthetho ukuze zazise abasolwa ngamalungelo abo ("isixwayiso seMiranda") ngaphambi kokuphenywa kwemvume, ukuqinisa iziphetho zeSichibiyelo sesihlanu.

Lamacala abonisa ikhono leNkantolo lokuvumelanisa ukuchazwa komthetho - sisekelo nezindinganiso zomphakathi, kuyilapho ibonisa futhi ithonya elihlala njalo lezinqumo zokwahlulela ekuphileni kwansuku zonke.

Indlela Amacala Afinyelela Ngayo ENkantolo Ephakeme

INkantolo Ephakeme ithola izicelo ezingaphezu kuka 7 000 ze-certiorari igama ngalinye kodwa inikeza ukubukeza cishe cishe kumaphesenti angu-1 kuphela ecala. Le nqubo iqala lapho i-face icela iNkantolo ukuba ilalele icala layo. Khona - ke amajaji aphinde abukeze izicelo futhi axoxe ngazo ngasese. Amajaji amane kumelwe avote ukuze anikeze i-cere (isinqumo se-ceritori") (icala lesine) ngaphambi kokuba icala lihlelelwe ukuphikisana ngomlomo. Inkantolo inikeza ukubukeza uma kuhlukene phakathi kwezinkantolo zesifunda empikiswaneni ebalulekile, lapho umthetho kahulumeni uthenjiswe ngokungafanele ngenkantolo ephansi, noma lapho icala linikeza umbuzo obalulekile. Ngemva kokuphikisana ngomlomo nangaphakathi, impikiswano ebhalwe ngaphakathi yemibono egciniwe.

Ithonya LeNkantolo Ephakeme Emphakathini Nemfundo

Ijaji likahulumeni, ikakhulukazi iNkantolo Ephakeme, inethonya elikhulu emphakathini waseMelika. Isinqumo salo sithinta yonke into kusukela emalungelweni omphakathi nasemithethoni yokuvota kuya kumthetho wezezimali nomthetho wobugebengu.

Ukuwachitha Amalungelo Omphakathi Nenkululeko

INkantolo Ephakeme ibilokhu iphakathi kwezinguquko eziningi ezibaluleke kakhulu zesizwe emphakathini. Ngamacala anjenge rown v. ibhodi lemfundo[, Gedeon v. Icala linwebe kakhulu futhi lisize ukungalungi. Ngisho nalapho iNkantolo ihlukanisa, kuthwala amandla omthetho nokulandela wonke amagatsha ohulumeni.

Ingxenye Ekhuthazayo Yomsebenzi Wesibonda

Kubafundi, ukufunda ngesimiso senkantolo ehlangene kungaphezu kokuzivivinya kwezemfundo, kuyisisekelo sokuqonda indlela amalungelo abo avikelwe ngayo nendlela abangahlanganyela ngayo embusweni wentando yeningi. Ngokufunda izikhankaso zomthetho, ngokuhlola ukucaciswa, nangokulandela izinqumo zeNkantolo yamanje, abafundi bahlakulela amakhono okugxeka kakhulu okucabanga nokwazisa ngokujulile ngemithetho. Imithombo yemfundo, enjenge [[FLT:] i-juviary produary , [[FLT:]], [[FLT:]] Oyez. org [eg] (okunikeza icala nemethozomsindo wempikiswano yomlomo), kanye nengosi yeNkakhululo yeNkakhulu. [FLT] [FLD] [FLT]] [F]]

Isiphetho

Isimiso senkantolo kahulumeni, kanye nesakhiwo saso esiqinile sezinkantolo zesifunda, izinkantolo zezikhalo, neNkantolo Ephakeme, sinikeza uhlelo oluqinile lokuchaza imithetho nokuqinisekisa ubulungisa. Abahluleli nabahluleli abakhonza kulezinkantolo banomthwalo wemfanelo omkhulu: kumelwe basebenzise umthetho ngokungakhethi, bavikele amalungelo omthetho, futhi balinganisele izimfuno eziphikisanayo zegunya likahulumeni ne-ohulumeni. Ukuqonda izindima ezihlukene zabahluleli besifunda nesifunda ngokumelene nomthetho ophakeme weNkanto enqubeni, inqubo yokumisa, namandla okubukeza kokwahlulela kudingekile kunoma ubani ofuna ukuqonda indlela isimiso somthetho waseMelika esisebenza ngayo.

Kubafundi nabafundisi, lolulwazi alusona nje ulwazi olufundiswayo, kodwa lukhuthaza ukwazisa okujulile ngokubusa komthetho nokubaluleka kwejaji elizimele. Ngokufunda izinkantolo zikahulumeni, amacala aphawula izenzakalo, nomsebenzi wansuku zonke wabahluleli nabahluleli, sizihlomisela ukuba sibe izakhamuzi ezinolwazi olungcono, sikwazi kangcono ukuhlanganyela enqubweni yentando yeningi nokuvikela izimiso zobulungisa nokulingana ezisekelwe kuMthetho-sisekelo. Uhulumeni uhlala ungumgcini wemithetho ebalulekile wesizwe, futhi indima yayo emphakathini olungisayo iyaqhubeka ithathwa njengezizukulwane ezizayo.